A solar cell is a device which changes sunlight into electricity. A more technical term for a solar cell is a photovoltaic cell.
The term "photo" derives from the Greek word for "light," and the term "voltaic" comes from the word "volt" which means "electrical force." A "cell" is a small receptacle or container containing electrodes which generate power.
Thus, a photovoltaic cell is a container that creates electric force, through light.
Whereas a solar cell can generate electricity from any light source, its intended use is the collection of solar energy from the sun.
How a Solar Cell Works
The solar cell works as follows:
Photons (which are particles of light in sun rays) hit the surface of the solar cell and are absorbed a semiconductor, such as silicon.
These photons (bits of sunlight) knock electrons loose from the atoms inside the semiconductor. The photons then push the electrons along, leaving a "gap" in the atom. Another electron is then pulled from an adjacent atom to fill the gap. And so an electrical flow is generated.
The simplicity of this is that one atom has an extra electron, and the other atom is missing one. This is referred to as a "difference in potential." Nature, wanting to remain balanced, tries to even things out by pulling another electron from the neighboring atom.
A solar panel is comprised of a group of solar cells which are linked together to produce the desired amount of electrical energy.
A group of solar cells linked together can also be referred to as a "module." Thus the terms "solar panel," and "solar module," are synonymous to each other, and essentially mean the exact same thing. "Solar panel" is the more common term, and "solar module" is the technical term.
One can use solar panels individually or one can link several together in order to generate more electricity. When a group of solar panels are linked together, it is called a "solar array". The more solar panels are included in a solar array, the more power they produce.
Solar Power is a clean and virtually unlimited source of energy. I say "virtually unlimited" because the sun itself won't last forever. But we won't have to worry about that for the next few billion years.
Since solar power is a clean energy source which has been around for decades, one might wonder why its not used more. The answer to this lies partially in the cost of producing solar panels, as well as in the efficiency of the solar panels.
We are currently in the second generation of solar panel technology and verging on the third. A lot has changed since the first generation. Solar panels a are becoming a viable source of clean energy.
The solar cells of earlier times were relatively large and bulky compared to our current models. In view of the amount of energy and material required to produce them, and the amount of energy they actually produced, it was more costly to use solar energy than to use fossil fuels. The only exception was in places where little or no fossil fuels were available, such as in space.
With the second-generation solar cells, we attempted to tackle this exact problem. We attempted improve manufacturing techniques so as to reduce the costs, materials and energy needed for the production of solar cells.
Recently, major advances have been made in the production of solar cells, which have reduced production costs.
One contribution in this area was the development of techniques to coat glass or ceramic materials with very thin layers of semi-conductive substances. This made it possible to produce solar panels using only a fraction of the semi-conductive material that was required earlier. The production of solar panels using this second-generation technology is referred to as "Thin Film Technology."
Third-generation solar energy technologies are currently being researched and developed. The objective is to improve the power of solar cells even further (while keeping production costs to a minimum) in which case thirty to sixty percent of the sunlight hitting the panels will be converted into electricity. (Currently, solar panels convert only about twenty percent.)
But regardless of third generation solar technology, the second-generation solar cell is efficient enough to make solar technology viable - and a host of new solar-powered products have hit the consumer market.
Solar-powered calculators have been in use for a while now, we've all seen them. We have even seen a few other novelty devices. But only in the last few years have solar devices come into serious and practical use.
The last two years in particular have seen a virtual explosion of solar devices hitting the market. Solar flashlights (I've often wandered what use they were), solar-powered radios, and, recently, solar battery chargers.
One can also now find a wide range of portable solar chargers and panels, which are lightweight and easy to transport, yet capable of providing a decent amount of power in even the most remote locations. Solar chargers are becoming a standard part of wilderness survival kits and emergency preparedness kits.
All of this is a result of the developments in solar cell technology, and the coming of the Solar Age.
Wednesday, October 29, 2008
What is Inside Wimax Technology (802.16)
WiMAX technology is identified as Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access; it is formed in June 2001 to encourage conformance and interoperability of the WiMAX (IEEE 802.16) standard, officially known as Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN). WiMAX technology intended to offer wireless data in a related fashion as compare to WiFi but on a outsized level and speed, therefore building national wireless networks with ease.
The driving forces behind WiMAX technology are link-to-multilink microwave networks from organizations for instance Alcatel and Siemens stay alive for years. Alternatively WiMAX offers a consistent technology according to its standard. WiMAX technology open loom could let product manufacturers make revenues of scale via producing number of WiMAX products & components to single IEEE 802.16 standard, this also allow component manufacturers buy low-cost, standards compliant components from rival component providers. This would defiantly help existing wireless service providers.
In addition, service providers lacking a mobile network can start a WiMAX technology network at comparatively stumpy price. WiMAX technology would also allow interoperability among different systems. WiMAX technology will offer high data speed network connections and in this manner serve as a backhaul for WiFi LAN (WLAN) hot spots, where people on the move can access carriers' WiFi services on mobile technology basis. WiMAX technology possibly will offer a much cheaper, easier to build network infrastructure other than the physical medium of WiFi backhauls that cable, T1 or DSL systems presently offer. These issues, together with user’s requirements for broadband facilities, will offer the grounds to markets to grow with WiMAX and wireless-broadband. However, the WiMAX technology faces some solid challenges ahead of it can become commonly accepted by users.
Because WiMAX is based on IEEE 802.16 Standard and HiperMAN, the IEEE and ETSI have each become accustomed it’s standard to take in many of the other's essential characteristics. IEEE 802.16 standard partitioned its MAC (Medium Access Control) layer into sub-layers that hold some different transport equipments and technologies, together with Ethernet, IPv4, IPv6 and other asynchronous transfer mode. This allows traders to use WiMAX technology it doesn’t matter about what technology they support for transmission. WiMAX technology has a wide communication range up to 50 kilometres because principles allows WiMAX network to transfer data at higher rates and because of this move towards use of directional antennas that generates persistent radio signals. WiMAX base station provide service to only 500 users at a time not more than that just because to they are sharing bandwidth and this factor may result in lower date rates among. Technically every single station will possibly provide communication an area inside a 10 miles radius. On the other hand WiFi has a range of only a few hundred feet while other third generation mobile networks have the range of few thousand feet.
As compare to other wireless standards their address broadcastings over particular frequency range, WiMAX network allocates data communication over several broad signal frequency ranges. The capacity to work in several ranges makes the most of the technology's ability to communicate above the frequencies that will evade interference with other wireless network applications. WiMAX system’s communication date rate and range differ a lot depending on implementation usage of frequency bands. These advantages of flexibility allow providers to employ different frequencies that depend on the speed and range needed for a particular data communication. The WiMAX technology attains higher data transmission rates in part by OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing). OFDM amplifies data capacity and bandwidth via dividing broad capacity channels to many narrowband channels; every channel uses different frequencies that can transmit different pieces of a message at the same time.
The spaces between channels are extremely close mutually other than avoiding intervention as nearby channels are orthogonal to each other and therefore no overlapping between them. The primary IEEE 802.16 standard uses the 10 to 66 GHz frequency range. On those higher frequencies WiMAX network needed a straight line of sight among senders & receivers. This factor shrinks the multi path distortion that arises when transmitting signals not follow the line of sight echoed of outsized items and finish off out of organization, in this manner jumbling the inbound communication and reducing bandwidth.
Dropping multi path distortion could therefore enhance the bandwidth. In theory WiMAX network can offer single channel data rates up to 75 Mbits/s equally on the downlink and uplink. Service providers can use several 802.16 channels for single broadcast to offer bandwidths of up to 350 Mb per second.
The accepted IEEE 802.11b WiFi WLAN technology data rate are limited to 11Mbps, on the other hand newer 802.11a and 802.11g provide upto 54Mbps in favourable conditions but practically all of the them transmit at lesser speed. Third generation mobile network technologies will support around 115 Kbps.
As far as security is concerned in WiMAX technology it uses PKI (Public Key Infrastructure) authentication, which transmit via digital certificates by identifying parties over trusted authorities. The IEEE 802.16 system encrypts data by using 56 bit DES (Data Encryption Standard) keys. In the meantime WiMAX network is extremely scalable as it is simple to include broadcast channels to offer extra bandwidth as required.
The expenditure of setting up wireless technology is significantly increases when the wireless services are supplied at higher frequencies as the line of sight constraints required the setting up of further antennas to cover up the equivalent geographical area. The available frequencies for new wireless standards such as IEEE 802.16 are normally higher as some of the other wireless technologies are more sought-after to lower ranges that have been approved for other use.
During the development of WiMAX technology, the WiMAX Forum has strongly supported and encourage the WiMAX technology, which involves a cluster of commercial leaders such as AT&T, Cisco, Samsung, Intel, and some others giants. The WiMAX forum group's workforce is comprised of many working groups that highly focused on regulatory, marketing, technological characteristics. WiMAX product certification program was extended by the certification working group which intends to certify interoperability among WiMAX products from manufacturers internationally.
The driving forces behind WiMAX technology are link-to-multilink microwave networks from organizations for instance Alcatel and Siemens stay alive for years. Alternatively WiMAX offers a consistent technology according to its standard. WiMAX technology open loom could let product manufacturers make revenues of scale via producing number of WiMAX products & components to single IEEE 802.16 standard, this also allow component manufacturers buy low-cost, standards compliant components from rival component providers. This would defiantly help existing wireless service providers.
In addition, service providers lacking a mobile network can start a WiMAX technology network at comparatively stumpy price. WiMAX technology would also allow interoperability among different systems. WiMAX technology will offer high data speed network connections and in this manner serve as a backhaul for WiFi LAN (WLAN) hot spots, where people on the move can access carriers' WiFi services on mobile technology basis. WiMAX technology possibly will offer a much cheaper, easier to build network infrastructure other than the physical medium of WiFi backhauls that cable, T1 or DSL systems presently offer. These issues, together with user’s requirements for broadband facilities, will offer the grounds to markets to grow with WiMAX and wireless-broadband. However, the WiMAX technology faces some solid challenges ahead of it can become commonly accepted by users.
Because WiMAX is based on IEEE 802.16 Standard and HiperMAN, the IEEE and ETSI have each become accustomed it’s standard to take in many of the other's essential characteristics. IEEE 802.16 standard partitioned its MAC (Medium Access Control) layer into sub-layers that hold some different transport equipments and technologies, together with Ethernet, IPv4, IPv6 and other asynchronous transfer mode. This allows traders to use WiMAX technology it doesn’t matter about what technology they support for transmission. WiMAX technology has a wide communication range up to 50 kilometres because principles allows WiMAX network to transfer data at higher rates and because of this move towards use of directional antennas that generates persistent radio signals. WiMAX base station provide service to only 500 users at a time not more than that just because to they are sharing bandwidth and this factor may result in lower date rates among. Technically every single station will possibly provide communication an area inside a 10 miles radius. On the other hand WiFi has a range of only a few hundred feet while other third generation mobile networks have the range of few thousand feet.
As compare to other wireless standards their address broadcastings over particular frequency range, WiMAX network allocates data communication over several broad signal frequency ranges. The capacity to work in several ranges makes the most of the technology's ability to communicate above the frequencies that will evade interference with other wireless network applications. WiMAX system’s communication date rate and range differ a lot depending on implementation usage of frequency bands. These advantages of flexibility allow providers to employ different frequencies that depend on the speed and range needed for a particular data communication. The WiMAX technology attains higher data transmission rates in part by OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing). OFDM amplifies data capacity and bandwidth via dividing broad capacity channels to many narrowband channels; every channel uses different frequencies that can transmit different pieces of a message at the same time.
The spaces between channels are extremely close mutually other than avoiding intervention as nearby channels are orthogonal to each other and therefore no overlapping between them. The primary IEEE 802.16 standard uses the 10 to 66 GHz frequency range. On those higher frequencies WiMAX network needed a straight line of sight among senders & receivers. This factor shrinks the multi path distortion that arises when transmitting signals not follow the line of sight echoed of outsized items and finish off out of organization, in this manner jumbling the inbound communication and reducing bandwidth.
Dropping multi path distortion could therefore enhance the bandwidth. In theory WiMAX network can offer single channel data rates up to 75 Mbits/s equally on the downlink and uplink. Service providers can use several 802.16 channels for single broadcast to offer bandwidths of up to 350 Mb per second.
The accepted IEEE 802.11b WiFi WLAN technology data rate are limited to 11Mbps, on the other hand newer 802.11a and 802.11g provide upto 54Mbps in favourable conditions but practically all of the them transmit at lesser speed. Third generation mobile network technologies will support around 115 Kbps.
As far as security is concerned in WiMAX technology it uses PKI (Public Key Infrastructure) authentication, which transmit via digital certificates by identifying parties over trusted authorities. The IEEE 802.16 system encrypts data by using 56 bit DES (Data Encryption Standard) keys. In the meantime WiMAX network is extremely scalable as it is simple to include broadcast channels to offer extra bandwidth as required.
The expenditure of setting up wireless technology is significantly increases when the wireless services are supplied at higher frequencies as the line of sight constraints required the setting up of further antennas to cover up the equivalent geographical area. The available frequencies for new wireless standards such as IEEE 802.16 are normally higher as some of the other wireless technologies are more sought-after to lower ranges that have been approved for other use.
During the development of WiMAX technology, the WiMAX Forum has strongly supported and encourage the WiMAX technology, which involves a cluster of commercial leaders such as AT&T, Cisco, Samsung, Intel, and some others giants. The WiMAX forum group's workforce is comprised of many working groups that highly focused on regulatory, marketing, technological characteristics. WiMAX product certification program was extended by the certification working group which intends to certify interoperability among WiMAX products from manufacturers internationally.
Monday, October 27, 2008
5 Important Functions of Wimax
Like WiFi system, WiMax can work on the similar way. You can access WiMax internet connection at any distance.
The speed of the WiMax is higher and there are more and more customers are enjoying using the WiMax system because of netter connectivity.
With the better connectivity, the WiMax can provide better connectivity in the interior region in USA because of lack of phone and cable network.
1. The WiMax system provides facilities of internet access through WiMax tower and WiMax receiver. The WiMax Tower is able to cover the larger area in the range of 8 thousand square kilometer. It is like cell phone tower.
2. WiMax receiver and antenna work with same direction as WiFi network. It has inbuilt facilities to access the network. The PCMCIA card is build-in with laptop to receive and deliver the signals.
3. TheWiMax tower station provides high bandwidth facilities like the T3 lines. You can also connect it with wired connection. You can also connect to WiMax tower with microwave link. Connection with one tower to another is the major advantage to get the benefits to connect in the rural area.
4. WiMax provides connection in two kinds of wireless service. There are lines of sight and non-line of sight is available in the WiMax services. In the line-of sight services there is a fixed antenna used at home top or office top to connect the network. The line-of-sight is more static and connectivity is good. You can get the faster speed with less error.
5. With non-line-of-sight network work on the same line with WiFi network. In this case you need small antenna in the computer to get the connection remotely. WiMax provides the services in the range of 2 to 11 GHz.
The speed of the WiMax is higher and there are more and more customers are enjoying using the WiMax system because of netter connectivity.
With the better connectivity, the WiMax can provide better connectivity in the interior region in USA because of lack of phone and cable network.
1. The WiMax system provides facilities of internet access through WiMax tower and WiMax receiver. The WiMax Tower is able to cover the larger area in the range of 8 thousand square kilometer. It is like cell phone tower.
2. WiMax receiver and antenna work with same direction as WiFi network. It has inbuilt facilities to access the network. The PCMCIA card is build-in with laptop to receive and deliver the signals.
3. TheWiMax tower station provides high bandwidth facilities like the T3 lines. You can also connect it with wired connection. You can also connect to WiMax tower with microwave link. Connection with one tower to another is the major advantage to get the benefits to connect in the rural area.
4. WiMax provides connection in two kinds of wireless service. There are lines of sight and non-line of sight is available in the WiMax services. In the line-of sight services there is a fixed antenna used at home top or office top to connect the network. The line-of-sight is more static and connectivity is good. You can get the faster speed with less error.
5. With non-line-of-sight network work on the same line with WiFi network. In this case you need small antenna in the computer to get the connection remotely. WiMax provides the services in the range of 2 to 11 GHz.
What Can Wimax Technology Offer?
WiMAX technology offers wireless data in a related form as compare to WiFi but its level and speed allow to build hybrid and wireless networks, of any size, anywhere. It is formed to encourage conformance and interoperability of Wireless Metropolitan Area Network. WiMAX offers a consistent technology according to its standard. WiMAX technology open could let product manufacturers make revenues of scale via producing number of WiMAX products & components to single IEEE 802.16 standard, this also allow component manufacturers buy low-cost, standards compliant components from rival component providers. This would definitely help existing wireless service providers.
WiMAX technology will offer high data speed network connections and in this manner serve as a backhaul for WiFi LAN (WLAN) hot spots, where people on the move can access carriers' WiFi services on mobile technology basis, because this technology allows interoperability among different systems. And service providers lacking a mobile network can use a WiMAX technology network at comparatively low price. WiMAX technology possibly will offer a much cheaper, easier to build network infrastructure other than the physical medium of WiFi backhauls that cable, T1 or DSL systems presently offer.
Because WiMAX is based on IEEE 802.16 Standard and HiperMAN, the IEEE and ETSI have each become accustomed it's standard to take in many of the other's essential characteristics. IEEE 802.16 standard partitioned its MAC (Medium Access Control) layer into sub-layers that hold some different transport equipments and technologies, together with Ethernet, IPv4, IPv6 and other asynchronous transfer mode. This allows traders to use WiMAX technology and no matter what technology they support for transmission. WiMAX technology has a wide communication range up to 50 kilometers because principles allows WiMAX network to transfer data at higher rates and because of this move towards use of directional antennas that generates persistent radio signals. WiMAX base station provide service to only 500 users at a time not more than that just because to they are sharing bandwidthand this factor may cause lower date rates among. Technically every single station will possibly provide communication an area inside a 10 miles radius. To compare WiFi with WiMAX technology the last has a range of few thousand feet. while WiFi has a range of only a few hundred feet.
Moreover WiMAX network broadcasts data communication over several broad signal frequency ranges. And this exceptional capacity to work in several ranges allows to communicate above the frequencies that will evade interference with other wireless network applications. Also the flexibility of this system's communication allows providers to employ different frequencies that depend on the speed and range needed for a particular data communication. Amplifying data capacity and bandwidth via dividing broad capacity channels to many narrowband channels, the WiMAX technology attains higher data transmission rates in part by OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing).Every channel uses different frequencies that can transmit different pieces of a message at the same time.
One of the important advantages of data transmission is that the channels do not overlap, in spite of the fact that the spaces between channels are extremely close. The primary IEEE 802.16 standard uses the 10 to 66 GHz frequency range And it is very suitable because this frequency range shrinks the multi path distortion that arises when transmitting signals that do not follow the line of sight echoed items and finish off out of sink, thus jumbling the inbound communication and reducing bandwidth.
In theory WiMAX network can offer single channel data rates up to 75 Mbits/s equally on the downlink and uplink. Service providers can use several 802.16 channels for single broadcast to offer bandwidths of up to 350 Mb per second.
Third generation mobile network technologies will support around 115 Kbps. The accepted IEEE 802.11b WiFi WLAN technology data rate are limited to 11Mbps, on the other hand newer 802.11a and 802.11g provide up to 54Mbps in favorable conditions but practically all of the them transmit at lesser speed.
In the meantime WiMAX network is extremely scalable as it is simple to include broadcast channels to offer extra bandwidth as required. And as far as security is concerned in WiMAX technology it uses PKI (Public Key Infrastructure) authentication, which transmit via digital certificates by identifying parties over trusted authorities. The IEEE 802.16 system encrypts data by using 56 bit DES (Data Encryption Standard) keys.
The wireless services are supplied at higher frequencies as the line of sight constraints required the setting up of many antennas to cover up the equivalent area and this increases to a great extent the expenditure of setting up wireless technology. The available frequencies for new wireless standards such as IEEE 802.16 are higher as some of the other wireless technologies are more sought-after to diminish ranges that have been approved for other use.
The WiMAX technology is always supported by the WiMAX Forum which comprises a group of commercial leaders such as AT&T, Cisco, Samsung, Intel, and some other giants. This forum involves many working groups that highly focused on regulatory, marketing, technological characteristics. Moreover the certification working group intends to certify interoperability among WiMAX products from manufacturers internationally
WiMAX technology will offer high data speed network connections and in this manner serve as a backhaul for WiFi LAN (WLAN) hot spots, where people on the move can access carriers' WiFi services on mobile technology basis, because this technology allows interoperability among different systems. And service providers lacking a mobile network can use a WiMAX technology network at comparatively low price. WiMAX technology possibly will offer a much cheaper, easier to build network infrastructure other than the physical medium of WiFi backhauls that cable, T1 or DSL systems presently offer.
Because WiMAX is based on IEEE 802.16 Standard and HiperMAN, the IEEE and ETSI have each become accustomed it's standard to take in many of the other's essential characteristics. IEEE 802.16 standard partitioned its MAC (Medium Access Control) layer into sub-layers that hold some different transport equipments and technologies, together with Ethernet, IPv4, IPv6 and other asynchronous transfer mode. This allows traders to use WiMAX technology and no matter what technology they support for transmission. WiMAX technology has a wide communication range up to 50 kilometers because principles allows WiMAX network to transfer data at higher rates and because of this move towards use of directional antennas that generates persistent radio signals. WiMAX base station provide service to only 500 users at a time not more than that just because to they are sharing bandwidthand this factor may cause lower date rates among. Technically every single station will possibly provide communication an area inside a 10 miles radius. To compare WiFi with WiMAX technology the last has a range of few thousand feet. while WiFi has a range of only a few hundred feet.
Moreover WiMAX network broadcasts data communication over several broad signal frequency ranges. And this exceptional capacity to work in several ranges allows to communicate above the frequencies that will evade interference with other wireless network applications. Also the flexibility of this system's communication allows providers to employ different frequencies that depend on the speed and range needed for a particular data communication. Amplifying data capacity and bandwidth via dividing broad capacity channels to many narrowband channels, the WiMAX technology attains higher data transmission rates in part by OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing).Every channel uses different frequencies that can transmit different pieces of a message at the same time.
One of the important advantages of data transmission is that the channels do not overlap, in spite of the fact that the spaces between channels are extremely close. The primary IEEE 802.16 standard uses the 10 to 66 GHz frequency range And it is very suitable because this frequency range shrinks the multi path distortion that arises when transmitting signals that do not follow the line of sight echoed items and finish off out of sink, thus jumbling the inbound communication and reducing bandwidth.
In theory WiMAX network can offer single channel data rates up to 75 Mbits/s equally on the downlink and uplink. Service providers can use several 802.16 channels for single broadcast to offer bandwidths of up to 350 Mb per second.
Third generation mobile network technologies will support around 115 Kbps. The accepted IEEE 802.11b WiFi WLAN technology data rate are limited to 11Mbps, on the other hand newer 802.11a and 802.11g provide up to 54Mbps in favorable conditions but practically all of the them transmit at lesser speed.
In the meantime WiMAX network is extremely scalable as it is simple to include broadcast channels to offer extra bandwidth as required. And as far as security is concerned in WiMAX technology it uses PKI (Public Key Infrastructure) authentication, which transmit via digital certificates by identifying parties over trusted authorities. The IEEE 802.16 system encrypts data by using 56 bit DES (Data Encryption Standard) keys.
The wireless services are supplied at higher frequencies as the line of sight constraints required the setting up of many antennas to cover up the equivalent area and this increases to a great extent the expenditure of setting up wireless technology. The available frequencies for new wireless standards such as IEEE 802.16 are higher as some of the other wireless technologies are more sought-after to diminish ranges that have been approved for other use.
The WiMAX technology is always supported by the WiMAX Forum which comprises a group of commercial leaders such as AT&T, Cisco, Samsung, Intel, and some other giants. This forum involves many working groups that highly focused on regulatory, marketing, technological characteristics. Moreover the certification working group intends to certify interoperability among WiMAX products from manufacturers internationally
WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access)
Description of WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access)
WiMAX is another name for IEEE 802.16, an international standard that allows for computers to be networked together and access the internet wirelessly. Although similar to Wi-Fi, WiMAX has a much broader range, and allows for faster data transfer speeds.
Because of the fact that a single WiMAX base station can cover an entire metropolitan area, it allows for true mobility rather than having to hop from hotspot to hotspot as is necessary with Wi-Fi connections
Wednesday, October 22, 2008
Electronics and Semiconductor Patents - an Evolution Scenario
In recent years, there has been an extensive boost in technological concepts related to electronics and electrical domain. Electronic engineering is a constantly changing and widening branch of technology. Electronics and semiconductor engineering is one of the largest and fastest growing industries. This growth has entailed a wide range of patent filing, all through. Electronics and semiconductors covers a wide range of applications we use daily, such as Television, Radio, computers, telecommunication etc, which make our life easier and enjoyable. It helps us see, hear and communicate over enormous distances and accomplish tasks faster. Electronics plays a major role in industries like oil, energy, agriculture and many other important sectors of economy. Electronics and semiconductor patents form a subclass of electrical patents. The electrical patenting class is broadly classified into many subclasses based on the area of nce. Some subclasses include Digital Electronics, Analog Electronics, Micro Electronics, Fuzzy Electronics, Application Specific Integrated Circuit Design, Semiconductors and Semiconductor devices, etc.
Patents are further classified based on the development of their active elements involving the design and testing of electronic circuits that use the electronic properties of components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes , microcontrollers, microprocessors and transistors to achieve a particular functionality. For example, 326 is the generic class for patents related to electronic digital logic devices, circuitry and sub combinations thereof, wherein non-arithmetical operations are performed upon discrete electrical signals representing a value normally described by numerical digits. It further has subclass 12 for redundant logic having a flip flop and subclass 37 for a multifunctional or programmable logic having a flip flop.
Integrated circuits and processing architectures are other categories protected by patents. Different aspects of these technologies such as architecture, applications or designs are protected by employing different intellectual property laws. As an invention, hardware architecture and their applications are protected as utility patents while Integrated circuit designs are protected as design patents. Hence, both design concepts and hardware are protected by patents. In discharging its patent-related duties, the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) examines patent applications and grants patents after establishing the patenting class and patentability of an invention. The claims of a patent serve as a guide in patent prosecution and infringement law suits.
There has been a steady growth in electrical, electronics and semiconductor patents being filed and granted by U.S. patent office since 1996. About 8, 16,349 electrical patents are being granted till December 31st 2004 and every year approximately 60,000 electrical patents are granted. U.S. Patent office has approximately granted 3, 70,000 semiconductor patents, 19,279 global positioning system patents, 75,109 electronics and communication patents.
Since its inception, the patent system has attempted to balance the tension between 2 competing objectives. On one hand, the law rewards technical innovation by granting exclusive rights to individuals for worthy inventions. On the other hand, it also seeks to increase the welfare of the society as a whole by providing it with the benefits of innovation. Electronics and semiconductor patents provide public with valuable information about how to use and implement new technology once it enters public domain.
One way to trace the development of electronics and semiconductor technology is to follow the development of its active elements, the switches and valves of electronics systems. A more recent trend in circuit design is to build custom integrated circuits that include as much circuitry as possible, often combining both analog and digital circuitry on a single substrate. This area is known as application specific integrated circuits (ASIC); the designers work with relatively small prefabricated circuits commonly called macro cells. In recent years there has been an increase in patent filing because in many industries and product development companies a division of innovative labor is emerging, resulting in the licensing of existing and prospective technologies. Hewlett Packard, Sanyo and Sony are some of the leading electronic companies in the world with a growing patent portfolio over the years.
Patents are further classified based on the development of their active elements involving the design and testing of electronic circuits that use the electronic properties of components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes , microcontrollers, microprocessors and transistors to achieve a particular functionality. For example, 326 is the generic class for patents related to electronic digital logic devices, circuitry and sub combinations thereof, wherein non-arithmetical operations are performed upon discrete electrical signals representing a value normally described by numerical digits. It further has subclass 12 for redundant logic having a flip flop and subclass 37 for a multifunctional or programmable logic having a flip flop.
Integrated circuits and processing architectures are other categories protected by patents. Different aspects of these technologies such as architecture, applications or designs are protected by employing different intellectual property laws. As an invention, hardware architecture and their applications are protected as utility patents while Integrated circuit designs are protected as design patents. Hence, both design concepts and hardware are protected by patents. In discharging its patent-related duties, the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) examines patent applications and grants patents after establishing the patenting class and patentability of an invention. The claims of a patent serve as a guide in patent prosecution and infringement law suits.
There has been a steady growth in electrical, electronics and semiconductor patents being filed and granted by U.S. patent office since 1996. About 8, 16,349 electrical patents are being granted till December 31st 2004 and every year approximately 60,000 electrical patents are granted. U.S. Patent office has approximately granted 3, 70,000 semiconductor patents, 19,279 global positioning system patents, 75,109 electronics and communication patents.
Since its inception, the patent system has attempted to balance the tension between 2 competing objectives. On one hand, the law rewards technical innovation by granting exclusive rights to individuals for worthy inventions. On the other hand, it also seeks to increase the welfare of the society as a whole by providing it with the benefits of innovation. Electronics and semiconductor patents provide public with valuable information about how to use and implement new technology once it enters public domain.
One way to trace the development of electronics and semiconductor technology is to follow the development of its active elements, the switches and valves of electronics systems. A more recent trend in circuit design is to build custom integrated circuits that include as much circuitry as possible, often combining both analog and digital circuitry on a single substrate. This area is known as application specific integrated circuits (ASIC); the designers work with relatively small prefabricated circuits commonly called macro cells. In recent years there has been an increase in patent filing because in many industries and product development companies a division of innovative labor is emerging, resulting in the licensing of existing and prospective technologies. Hewlett Packard, Sanyo and Sony are some of the leading electronic companies in the world with a growing patent portfolio over the years.
Electronics Engineering Technology Distance Learning - Become a Most in Demand Technologist
Electronics Engineering Technology distance learning courses are flourishing, making use of the low entry-level requirement of a 2-year Associate Degree to become an Engineering Technician, and the further career advancement to an Engineering Technologist (or Applied Engineer) possible in the field by pursuing a 4-year Bachelors Degree. Among all Technicians and Technologists working in USA, Electrical and Electronics Engineering professionals make up more than one-third, which is a clear indication for their demand. And this demand is nowadays driven more by the high-tech industry's need for Electronics Engineering Technicians, rather than the conventional industries' need for Electrical Engineering Technicians.
Why Electronics Engineering Technology?
All of today's booming industrial sectors like telecommunications, medical equipment, control systems, automotive systems, navigational systems, and of course, the consumer appliances sector are bringing out everything from mobile phones to home theatres, and require expertise in Electronics Engineering more than anything else, which explains the demand for Electronics Engineering professionals.
However, to attempt the field through an Engineering Degree can be taxing to those students who are not interested in taking advanced level mathematics (calculus) courses that an Engineering Degree requires, or to endure its long 4-year time frame. For such students, Electronics Engineering Technology is a great option, with its stress on applied or hands-on Electronics Engineering rather than the mathematics-dense and research-oriented Electronics Engineering. The time frame also is much shorter, with an Electronics Engineering Technician requiring only a 2-year Associate Degree to enter the field.
The job opportunities too are tilted in favor of Electronics Engineering Technicians when compared with Electronics Engineers; there are 182,000 Electrical and Electronics Engineering Technicians working in USA, compared with only 143,000 Electronics Engineers. The only drawbacks - a lower level in the hierarchy and the lower starting salaries than Electronics Engineers - can be overcome in the long run, since interested Electronics Engineering Technicians can study further for a 4-year Bachelors Degree, thus qualifying for the senior position of Electronics Engineering Technologist, who enjoys a position and salary comparable to Electronics Engineers. Average salary for Electronics Engineering Senior Technicians / Technologists is US $46,000, very comparable to salaries for Electronics Engineers at US $52,000.
Why Electronics Engineering Technology Distance Learning?
It is estimated that job opportunities for Electronics Engineering Technicians and Technologists would grow at up to 17% every year, for nearly the next 10 years. The requirement of an Associate Degree for entering the field is a relatively recent phenomenon, and a significant percentage of working Electronics Engineering Technicians doesn't have such a formal degree. The industry preference to degree holders is encouraging such working professionals to get an Associate Degree, and electronics engineering technology distance learning becomes the natural choice. Also, due to the boom in the sector, those already having an Associate Degree will go for a Bachelors Degree so that they can work as a Technologist. And, of course, the growth prospects in the sector are attracting working professionals from other fields to Electronics Engineering Technology. These three factors are driving the huge demand for electronics engineering technology distance learning courses.
Earlier, there were technological hindrances to deliver such a hands-on course through a distance or online model. However, with the development of state-of-the-art systems like National Instruments' LabVIEW/ELVIS (Educational Laboratory Virtual Instrumentation Suite), which can be used by remote students through a web browser, to virtually perform any electronics experiment, the demand for Electronics Engineering Distance Learning courses are at an all-time high.
Universities and Colleges Offering Electronics Engineering Technology Distance Learning
Electronics engineering technology distance learning courses offer both 2-year Associate and 4-year Bachelors Degrees. While Community Colleges and Institutes dominate the Associate Degree scene, Universities and Polytechnics are the primary sources for Bachelors Degrees. While searching for electronics engineering technology distance learning courses, it should be kept in mind that many US institutions still call the subject Electrical Engineering Technology.
Associate Degrees
Many Community Colleges and Institutes offer 2-year Associate Degrees for electronics engineering technology distance learning, but fully accredited courses are fewer. Whether for employment as an Electronics Engineering Technician or for further pursuance of a Bachelors Degree, it is always better to go for an accredited course. Cleveland Institute of Electronics (CIE), Penn Foster Career School, and Grantham University are three institutions that offer accredited Associate Degrees in the subject.
CIE's Associate in Applied Science (A.A.S.) in Electronics Engineering Technology boasts of many unique features. Designed from the ground up as a distance learning course, rather than an online adaptation of a regular course, the CIE A.A.S. provides everything that an electronics engineering technology distance learning student might require, in a packaged fashion - complete with printed courseware for over 250 self-paced lessons, videos, and detailed instructions for the over 300 hands-on lab experiments. The only thing missing will be access to an Oscilloscope, and the CIE Bookstore even sells Oscilloscopes at discounted prices to its students! One-to-one instructor support is always available for students. Even the exams can be taken online. A really unique feature of the course is that interested and capable students can complete the course in half or even quarter time, and need only pay for that!
Penn Foster Career School offers an Associate in Specialized Technology (AST) in Electronics Technology, that can be completed fully online, with access to an internet-connected computer being the only requirement. Tuition includes well-written and amply-illustrated printed courseware, tools and equipment for experiments, and unlimited instructor support through website, phone, email, and regular mail. Online open-book exams and end-of-semester proctored exams are other features of this course. The course is self-paced, with longer than 2-year durations allowed.
Grantham University offers an Associate of Science (AS) in Electronics Engineering Technology through the distance mode. The tuition package for the course includes textbooks, lesson guides, grading of all tests, mailing of materials and graded tests from the college, consultation with instructors, and required software. Proctored exams are conducted at the end of every semester, which lend more credibility to this course. Consultation with instructors is available through phone, fax, email, and regular mail. To better facilitate the distance mode of the course, Grantham University even provides a discounted option for its students to buy computers from Dell. However, the main advantage of this course is that full credit transfer is possible to Grantham's Bachelors Degree in the subject. Grantham is especially popular with military students.
Bachelors Degrees
When it comes to Bachelors Degrees for electronics engineering technology distance learning, even courses with accreditation from the Technology Accreditation Commission (TAC) of the Accreditation Board for Engineering Technology (ABET) are available.
Old Dominion University offers its Bachelor of Science (BS) in Engineering Technology, with Electrical Engineering Technology as Major, and Electrical Systems Technology as optional. The course name follows the earlier US convention of naming Electronics Engineering courses as Electrical Engineering courses. This B.S. indeed has significant stress on Electronics Engineering Technology. In-depth coverage of Electronics includes Linear Electronics, Digital Controls, Microprocessors, Communications, Control Systems etc. High-tech delivery methods like virtual laboratory, streaming video, and satellite broadcast for 1-way video and 2-way audio, are fully utilized. The course is accredited by TAC of ABET.
World College, a wholly owned subsidiary of the Cleveland Institute of Electronics (CIE), offers a Bachelor of Electronics Engineering Technology (BEET) through the distance mode. Features include over 300 lab experiments, online exams, and toll free phones and email for consultation with instructors. Subjects covered include Electronics, Computer Technology, Telecommunications, Electrical Power, and Control Systems. Access to a computer and an oscilloscope are necessary.
Grantham University (described above, under Associate Degrees) also offers a Bachelor of Science (BS) in Electronics Engineering Technology.
The only current limiting factor for electronics engineering technology distance learning seems to be the high costs for implementing virtual labs that can be simultaneously accessed by a large number of students, and once this is solved by better and economical hardware and software, electronics engineering technology distance learning will be provided by more and more Universities, Colleges, and Polytechnic Institutes.
Why Electronics Engineering Technology?
All of today's booming industrial sectors like telecommunications, medical equipment, control systems, automotive systems, navigational systems, and of course, the consumer appliances sector are bringing out everything from mobile phones to home theatres, and require expertise in Electronics Engineering more than anything else, which explains the demand for Electronics Engineering professionals.
However, to attempt the field through an Engineering Degree can be taxing to those students who are not interested in taking advanced level mathematics (calculus) courses that an Engineering Degree requires, or to endure its long 4-year time frame. For such students, Electronics Engineering Technology is a great option, with its stress on applied or hands-on Electronics Engineering rather than the mathematics-dense and research-oriented Electronics Engineering. The time frame also is much shorter, with an Electronics Engineering Technician requiring only a 2-year Associate Degree to enter the field.
The job opportunities too are tilted in favor of Electronics Engineering Technicians when compared with Electronics Engineers; there are 182,000 Electrical and Electronics Engineering Technicians working in USA, compared with only 143,000 Electronics Engineers. The only drawbacks - a lower level in the hierarchy and the lower starting salaries than Electronics Engineers - can be overcome in the long run, since interested Electronics Engineering Technicians can study further for a 4-year Bachelors Degree, thus qualifying for the senior position of Electronics Engineering Technologist, who enjoys a position and salary comparable to Electronics Engineers. Average salary for Electronics Engineering Senior Technicians / Technologists is US $46,000, very comparable to salaries for Electronics Engineers at US $52,000.
Why Electronics Engineering Technology Distance Learning?
It is estimated that job opportunities for Electronics Engineering Technicians and Technologists would grow at up to 17% every year, for nearly the next 10 years. The requirement of an Associate Degree for entering the field is a relatively recent phenomenon, and a significant percentage of working Electronics Engineering Technicians doesn't have such a formal degree. The industry preference to degree holders is encouraging such working professionals to get an Associate Degree, and electronics engineering technology distance learning becomes the natural choice. Also, due to the boom in the sector, those already having an Associate Degree will go for a Bachelors Degree so that they can work as a Technologist. And, of course, the growth prospects in the sector are attracting working professionals from other fields to Electronics Engineering Technology. These three factors are driving the huge demand for electronics engineering technology distance learning courses.
Earlier, there were technological hindrances to deliver such a hands-on course through a distance or online model. However, with the development of state-of-the-art systems like National Instruments' LabVIEW/ELVIS (Educational Laboratory Virtual Instrumentation Suite), which can be used by remote students through a web browser, to virtually perform any electronics experiment, the demand for Electronics Engineering Distance Learning courses are at an all-time high.
Universities and Colleges Offering Electronics Engineering Technology Distance Learning
Electronics engineering technology distance learning courses offer both 2-year Associate and 4-year Bachelors Degrees. While Community Colleges and Institutes dominate the Associate Degree scene, Universities and Polytechnics are the primary sources for Bachelors Degrees. While searching for electronics engineering technology distance learning courses, it should be kept in mind that many US institutions still call the subject Electrical Engineering Technology.
Associate Degrees
Many Community Colleges and Institutes offer 2-year Associate Degrees for electronics engineering technology distance learning, but fully accredited courses are fewer. Whether for employment as an Electronics Engineering Technician or for further pursuance of a Bachelors Degree, it is always better to go for an accredited course. Cleveland Institute of Electronics (CIE), Penn Foster Career School, and Grantham University are three institutions that offer accredited Associate Degrees in the subject.
CIE's Associate in Applied Science (A.A.S.) in Electronics Engineering Technology boasts of many unique features. Designed from the ground up as a distance learning course, rather than an online adaptation of a regular course, the CIE A.A.S. provides everything that an electronics engineering technology distance learning student might require, in a packaged fashion - complete with printed courseware for over 250 self-paced lessons, videos, and detailed instructions for the over 300 hands-on lab experiments. The only thing missing will be access to an Oscilloscope, and the CIE Bookstore even sells Oscilloscopes at discounted prices to its students! One-to-one instructor support is always available for students. Even the exams can be taken online. A really unique feature of the course is that interested and capable students can complete the course in half or even quarter time, and need only pay for that!
Penn Foster Career School offers an Associate in Specialized Technology (AST) in Electronics Technology, that can be completed fully online, with access to an internet-connected computer being the only requirement. Tuition includes well-written and amply-illustrated printed courseware, tools and equipment for experiments, and unlimited instructor support through website, phone, email, and regular mail. Online open-book exams and end-of-semester proctored exams are other features of this course. The course is self-paced, with longer than 2-year durations allowed.
Grantham University offers an Associate of Science (AS) in Electronics Engineering Technology through the distance mode. The tuition package for the course includes textbooks, lesson guides, grading of all tests, mailing of materials and graded tests from the college, consultation with instructors, and required software. Proctored exams are conducted at the end of every semester, which lend more credibility to this course. Consultation with instructors is available through phone, fax, email, and regular mail. To better facilitate the distance mode of the course, Grantham University even provides a discounted option for its students to buy computers from Dell. However, the main advantage of this course is that full credit transfer is possible to Grantham's Bachelors Degree in the subject. Grantham is especially popular with military students.
Bachelors Degrees
When it comes to Bachelors Degrees for electronics engineering technology distance learning, even courses with accreditation from the Technology Accreditation Commission (TAC) of the Accreditation Board for Engineering Technology (ABET) are available.
Old Dominion University offers its Bachelor of Science (BS) in Engineering Technology, with Electrical Engineering Technology as Major, and Electrical Systems Technology as optional. The course name follows the earlier US convention of naming Electronics Engineering courses as Electrical Engineering courses. This B.S. indeed has significant stress on Electronics Engineering Technology. In-depth coverage of Electronics includes Linear Electronics, Digital Controls, Microprocessors, Communications, Control Systems etc. High-tech delivery methods like virtual laboratory, streaming video, and satellite broadcast for 1-way video and 2-way audio, are fully utilized. The course is accredited by TAC of ABET.
World College, a wholly owned subsidiary of the Cleveland Institute of Electronics (CIE), offers a Bachelor of Electronics Engineering Technology (BEET) through the distance mode. Features include over 300 lab experiments, online exams, and toll free phones and email for consultation with instructors. Subjects covered include Electronics, Computer Technology, Telecommunications, Electrical Power, and Control Systems. Access to a computer and an oscilloscope are necessary.
Grantham University (described above, under Associate Degrees) also offers a Bachelor of Science (BS) in Electronics Engineering Technology.
The only current limiting factor for electronics engineering technology distance learning seems to be the high costs for implementing virtual labs that can be simultaneously accessed by a large number of students, and once this is solved by better and economical hardware and software, electronics engineering technology distance learning will be provided by more and more Universities, Colleges, and Polytechnic Institutes.
The Chevrolet Corvair Engine
The Chevrolet Corvair engine was a flat-6 (or boxer engine) piston engine used exclusively in the 1960s Chevrolet Corvair automobile. It was a highly unusual engine for General Motors: It was air-cooled, used a flat design, with aluminum heads (incorporating integral intake manifolds) and crankcase, and individual iron cylinder barrels. The heads were modeled after the standard Chevrolet overhead valve design, with large valves operated by rocker arms, actuated by pushrods run off a nine lobe camshaft (exhaust lobes did double duty for two opposing cylinders) running directly on the crankcase bore without an inserted bearing, operating hydraulic valve lifters (which eliminated low temperature valve clatter otherwise seen with that much aluminum in the engine, due to its high degree of thermal expansion).
The flat horizontally opposed ("flat engine") air-cooled engine design, previously used by Volkswagen and Porsche as well as Lycoming aircraft engines, offered many advantages. Unlike inline or V designs, the horizontally opposed design made the engine inherently mechanically balanced, so that counterweights on the crankshaft were not necessary, reducing the weight greatly. Eliminating a water-cooling system further reduced the weight, and the use of aluminum for the heads and crankcase capitalized on this weight reduction; so that with the use of aluminum for the transaxle case, the entire engine/transaxle assembly weighed under 500 pounds (225 kilograms). In addition, the elimination of water-cooling eliminated several points of maintenance and possible failure, reducing them all to a single point; the fan belt. As with the Volkswagen and Porsche designs, the low weight and compact but wide packaging made the engine ideal for mounting in the rear of the car, eliminating the weight and space of a conventional driveshaft.
Two years after its 1960 debut, the Corvair engine gained another unusual attribute: it was the second production engine ever to be equipped from the factory with a turbocharger, released shortly after the Oldsmobile Jetfire V8.
Aircraft hobbyists and small volume builders, perhaps seeing the Corvair engine's similarity to Lycoming aircraft engines, very quickly began a cottage industry of modifying Corvair engines for aircraft use, which continues to this day. The Corvair engine also became a favorite for installation into modified Volkswagens and Porsches, as well as dune buggies and homemade sports and race cars.
140
The Corvair's innovative turbocharged engine; The turbo, located at top right, takes in air through the large air cleaner at top left, passes it through the sidedraft carburetor in between, and feeds pressurized fuel/air mixture into the engine through the chrome T-tube visible spanning the engine from left to right.
The Corvair's innovative turbocharged engine; The turbo, located at top right, takes in air through the large air cleaner at top left, passes it through the sidedraft carburetor in between, and feeds pressurized fuel/air mixture into the engine through the chrome T-tube visible spanning the engine from left to right.
The initial Corvair engine displaced 140 in³ (2.3 L) and produced 80 hp (60 kW). The high performance optional "Super TurboAir" version, introduced mid 1960 with a special camshaft and revised carburetors and valve springs produced 95 hp (70 kW).
145
In 1961, the engine received its first increases in size via a larger bore. The engine was now 145 in³ and the base engine was said to produce the same 80 hp (60 kW). The new high performance engine was rated at 98 hp (73 kW). In 1962 the high performance engine was rated at 102 hp (76 kW). The high compression 102 HP heads were added to the Monza models equipped with Powerglide when the standard engine was ordered, giving an 84 HP engine rating. 1962 engines returned to automatic chokes after a one year only manual choke on 1961 models.
The ultimate performance was found in the Spyder model, which became available with a turbocharged engine rated at 150 hp (112 kW). The turbocharger was mounted on the right side of the firewall behind the rear seat, fed by both exhaust manifolds; a single sidedraft carburetor mounted on the left side of the firewall fed directly into the turbocharger's intake, with a chromed pipe leading from the turbocharger's outlet to what would otherwise be the carburetor mounting pads on the intake manifolds, which were integral parts of the heads. The turbocharged heads received some valve upgrades to improve durability. Exhaust valves on turbocharged engines were made from a non-ferrous material used in jet engine turbine buckets, called 'Nimonic 80-A'. All other Corvair engines had slight upgrades in valve and valve seat materials as well for 1962.
164
The engine was stroked out (from 2.6" to 2.94") displacing 164 in (2.7 L) for 1964. Power output was boosted to 95 hp (70 kW) for the base model and 110 hp (80 kW) in the high performance normally aspirated engine, while the Turbocharged engine remained rated at 150 hp for this year. This increase in stroke was the maximum the engine could tolerate, to the point that the bottoms of the cylinder barrels had to be notched to clear the big end of the connecting rods.
For the 1965 model year, all engines had the head gasket area between the cylinder and the head widened, with a new design folded "Z" section stainless steel head gasket virtually eliminating any risk of head gasket failure. A 140 hp (104 kW) version with 4 single barrel carburetors, and a progressive linkage was introduced in 1965 as option L63 'Special High Performance Engine' and was standard equipment on the Corsa model. The carburetors consisted of a single barrel primary and a single barrel secondary on each head, connected by a progressive linkage; in addition, the heads featured a 9.25:1 compression ratio, and the cars received dual exhaust systems. Engines supplied with the automatic transmission after spring 1965 were modified with a camshaft from the 95 Horsepower base engine, and a special crankshaft gear that retarded its timing 4 degrees- the former to increase torque and smooth idle with the Powerglide transmission, the latter to restore some of the peak HP lost at higher engine speeds by the economy contoured camshaft with short timing.
1966 engines were basically carryover from the 1965 models, however Corvairs sold in California (except Turbocharged models) now featured the General Motors Air Injection Reactor System (AIR), and emissions control system consisting of an engine driven air pump that drew filtered air from the air cleaner, and injected a metered amount into the exhaust manifolds via tubing to promote complete oxidation and combustion of exhaust gasses to lower emissions. Specially calibrated carburetors and slight changes to the ignition timing and advance curves were part of the package. The AIR system had an unfortunate effect of sustantially raising exhaust gas, valve and head temperatures, particularly under heavy loads and this was a drawback on the Corvair where engine cooling could not be easily improved to cope with the higher temperatures. Nonetheless, performance and drivability were not noticably effected in most circumstances. In 1968, all Corvair (and other GM) engines got the AIR system for every market.
The 140 HP engine was officially discontinued for '67, but became optional in 1967 as COPO 9551-B, not a regular production option. Chevrolet sold 279 of these engines in the 1967 model year, 232 with manual transmissions, and 47 with Powerglide transmissions. Only six were sold with the four carburetor engine and the AIR injection system required by California emissions standards. These figures include 14 Yenko Stingers and 3 Dana Chevrolet variants of the Stinger.
Both the 140 HP engines and the Turbocharged engines had many special quality features not shared with lesser Corvairs- Moly insert top rings, stellite tips and faces on the valves, a Tufftrided (cold gas hardened) crankshaft, and Delco Moraine '400' aluminum engine bearings- the quality of the 140HP Corvair engine for materials is directly comparable to the Rolls Royce V8 of that era, item for item. It was a fabulous bargain for the $79 premium it commanded over the basic 95HP engine. Performance of the 140HP engine was better than you might expect, with a 5200 rpm peak horsepower output, it offered road performance in a Corvair comparable to contemporary Cadillac models of the day.
The turbocharged engine now developed 180 hp (134 kW). Contemporary reviews describe a similarity in power between the turbocharged and four-carburetor engines throughout the low and mid rpm range, with the turbocharged engine being superior only when it was possible to sustain boost continously. The turbocharged engines long suit was highway acceleration, flooring the accelerator at turnpike speeds produced ferocious acceleration in the upper speed ranges as the turbocharger began to boost, reaching manifold pressures approaching 15 PSI. No wastegate was used on the Corvair turbocharged engine, boost was controlled by careful balancing of exhaust restriction, mostly via the muffler, and intake restrictions from the smallish Carter YH carburetor used. Preignition and knock under boost was controlled using a novel 'pressure retard' device, essentially a modified vacuum advance device, on the specially curved distributor, as boost pressures built, ignition advance was progressively reduced to preclude detonation.
The flat horizontally opposed ("flat engine") air-cooled engine design, previously used by Volkswagen and Porsche as well as Lycoming aircraft engines, offered many advantages. Unlike inline or V designs, the horizontally opposed design made the engine inherently mechanically balanced, so that counterweights on the crankshaft were not necessary, reducing the weight greatly. Eliminating a water-cooling system further reduced the weight, and the use of aluminum for the heads and crankcase capitalized on this weight reduction; so that with the use of aluminum for the transaxle case, the entire engine/transaxle assembly weighed under 500 pounds (225 kilograms). In addition, the elimination of water-cooling eliminated several points of maintenance and possible failure, reducing them all to a single point; the fan belt. As with the Volkswagen and Porsche designs, the low weight and compact but wide packaging made the engine ideal for mounting in the rear of the car, eliminating the weight and space of a conventional driveshaft.
Two years after its 1960 debut, the Corvair engine gained another unusual attribute: it was the second production engine ever to be equipped from the factory with a turbocharger, released shortly after the Oldsmobile Jetfire V8.
Aircraft hobbyists and small volume builders, perhaps seeing the Corvair engine's similarity to Lycoming aircraft engines, very quickly began a cottage industry of modifying Corvair engines for aircraft use, which continues to this day. The Corvair engine also became a favorite for installation into modified Volkswagens and Porsches, as well as dune buggies and homemade sports and race cars.
140
The Corvair's innovative turbocharged engine; The turbo, located at top right, takes in air through the large air cleaner at top left, passes it through the sidedraft carburetor in between, and feeds pressurized fuel/air mixture into the engine through the chrome T-tube visible spanning the engine from left to right.
The Corvair's innovative turbocharged engine; The turbo, located at top right, takes in air through the large air cleaner at top left, passes it through the sidedraft carburetor in between, and feeds pressurized fuel/air mixture into the engine through the chrome T-tube visible spanning the engine from left to right.
The initial Corvair engine displaced 140 in³ (2.3 L) and produced 80 hp (60 kW). The high performance optional "Super TurboAir" version, introduced mid 1960 with a special camshaft and revised carburetors and valve springs produced 95 hp (70 kW).
145
In 1961, the engine received its first increases in size via a larger bore. The engine was now 145 in³ and the base engine was said to produce the same 80 hp (60 kW). The new high performance engine was rated at 98 hp (73 kW). In 1962 the high performance engine was rated at 102 hp (76 kW). The high compression 102 HP heads were added to the Monza models equipped with Powerglide when the standard engine was ordered, giving an 84 HP engine rating. 1962 engines returned to automatic chokes after a one year only manual choke on 1961 models.
The ultimate performance was found in the Spyder model, which became available with a turbocharged engine rated at 150 hp (112 kW). The turbocharger was mounted on the right side of the firewall behind the rear seat, fed by both exhaust manifolds; a single sidedraft carburetor mounted on the left side of the firewall fed directly into the turbocharger's intake, with a chromed pipe leading from the turbocharger's outlet to what would otherwise be the carburetor mounting pads on the intake manifolds, which were integral parts of the heads. The turbocharged heads received some valve upgrades to improve durability. Exhaust valves on turbocharged engines were made from a non-ferrous material used in jet engine turbine buckets, called 'Nimonic 80-A'. All other Corvair engines had slight upgrades in valve and valve seat materials as well for 1962.
164
The engine was stroked out (from 2.6" to 2.94") displacing 164 in (2.7 L) for 1964. Power output was boosted to 95 hp (70 kW) for the base model and 110 hp (80 kW) in the high performance normally aspirated engine, while the Turbocharged engine remained rated at 150 hp for this year. This increase in stroke was the maximum the engine could tolerate, to the point that the bottoms of the cylinder barrels had to be notched to clear the big end of the connecting rods.
For the 1965 model year, all engines had the head gasket area between the cylinder and the head widened, with a new design folded "Z" section stainless steel head gasket virtually eliminating any risk of head gasket failure. A 140 hp (104 kW) version with 4 single barrel carburetors, and a progressive linkage was introduced in 1965 as option L63 'Special High Performance Engine' and was standard equipment on the Corsa model. The carburetors consisted of a single barrel primary and a single barrel secondary on each head, connected by a progressive linkage; in addition, the heads featured a 9.25:1 compression ratio, and the cars received dual exhaust systems. Engines supplied with the automatic transmission after spring 1965 were modified with a camshaft from the 95 Horsepower base engine, and a special crankshaft gear that retarded its timing 4 degrees- the former to increase torque and smooth idle with the Powerglide transmission, the latter to restore some of the peak HP lost at higher engine speeds by the economy contoured camshaft with short timing.
1966 engines were basically carryover from the 1965 models, however Corvairs sold in California (except Turbocharged models) now featured the General Motors Air Injection Reactor System (AIR), and emissions control system consisting of an engine driven air pump that drew filtered air from the air cleaner, and injected a metered amount into the exhaust manifolds via tubing to promote complete oxidation and combustion of exhaust gasses to lower emissions. Specially calibrated carburetors and slight changes to the ignition timing and advance curves were part of the package. The AIR system had an unfortunate effect of sustantially raising exhaust gas, valve and head temperatures, particularly under heavy loads and this was a drawback on the Corvair where engine cooling could not be easily improved to cope with the higher temperatures. Nonetheless, performance and drivability were not noticably effected in most circumstances. In 1968, all Corvair (and other GM) engines got the AIR system for every market.
The 140 HP engine was officially discontinued for '67, but became optional in 1967 as COPO 9551-B, not a regular production option. Chevrolet sold 279 of these engines in the 1967 model year, 232 with manual transmissions, and 47 with Powerglide transmissions. Only six were sold with the four carburetor engine and the AIR injection system required by California emissions standards. These figures include 14 Yenko Stingers and 3 Dana Chevrolet variants of the Stinger.
Both the 140 HP engines and the Turbocharged engines had many special quality features not shared with lesser Corvairs- Moly insert top rings, stellite tips and faces on the valves, a Tufftrided (cold gas hardened) crankshaft, and Delco Moraine '400' aluminum engine bearings- the quality of the 140HP Corvair engine for materials is directly comparable to the Rolls Royce V8 of that era, item for item. It was a fabulous bargain for the $79 premium it commanded over the basic 95HP engine. Performance of the 140HP engine was better than you might expect, with a 5200 rpm peak horsepower output, it offered road performance in a Corvair comparable to contemporary Cadillac models of the day.
The turbocharged engine now developed 180 hp (134 kW). Contemporary reviews describe a similarity in power between the turbocharged and four-carburetor engines throughout the low and mid rpm range, with the turbocharged engine being superior only when it was possible to sustain boost continously. The turbocharged engines long suit was highway acceleration, flooring the accelerator at turnpike speeds produced ferocious acceleration in the upper speed ranges as the turbocharger began to boost, reaching manifold pressures approaching 15 PSI. No wastegate was used on the Corvair turbocharged engine, boost was controlled by careful balancing of exhaust restriction, mostly via the muffler, and intake restrictions from the smallish Carter YH carburetor used. Preignition and knock under boost was controlled using a novel 'pressure retard' device, essentially a modified vacuum advance device, on the specially curved distributor, as boost pressures built, ignition advance was progressively reduced to preclude detonation.
Tuesday, October 21, 2008
Must Have Checklist: Choosing a GPS Device
Must Have Checklist: Choosing a GPS Device
15 Smart Uses for a GPS-Enabled Device
1. Drive yourself and others with increased safety and more confidence
2. Install in your business’ delivery vans to make efficient use of time and gas
3. Hop in the SUV and drive the kids straight to a new friend’s birthday party – hassle free
4. Use on your boat (or a friend’s) to locate a favorite saltwater fishing spot
5. Tuck in your backpack when on a bike ride to try a different route home
6. Find the nearest diner on a road trip in your RV
7. Locate the nearest home improvement store on the day you move into your new house
8. Carry in your pocket to keep your bearings while on a nature walk
9. Avoid being the last one to arrive at the 8 a.m. meeting
10. Get roadside assistance with the touch of a button
11. Make phone calls from your car when your cell phone battery dies
12. Swing by and get some roses at the nearest florist on your way to pick up your date
13. Check out that excellent Mexican restaurant your sister mentioned she ate at last week
14. Drive the rental car to Las Vegas from Chicago in record time
15. Spend more time selling to clients and less time on the road
Relying on technology to help you find your way may seem like a luxury. But in fact, using GPS can provide you with so many benefits that you will likely be able to afford more luxury. A GPS-enabled device such as a portable GPS unit or cell phone can save you time, gas and money while preventing headaches – whether you purchase it for business or personal use.
Global Positioning Systems communicate your current location to satellites in orbit, which then feed navigation information to the GPS-enabled device in your car, delivery van, RV, boat, semi-tractor trailer, ATV backpack or jacket pocket.
Types of GPS-enabled devices include:
· Units for in-dash installation in a vehicle
· Portable full-featured units
· Portable no-frills models
· Handheld devices for hikers, bikers and tourists on foot
· PDAs with integrated receivers or equipped with add-on adapters
· Cell phones
Features to Consider
New, clever enhancements are being made to GPS systems every day. Although the following features are common, they show up in many combinations, so be sure to compare products thoroughly. Take the time to review ratings carefully, too – there’s nothing like having a GPS to know how well it works.
· Voice guided driving directions (so drivers don’t have to look at the display screen)
· If installed or mounted in a vehicle, drivers should only use the touch screen when at a stop. For your driving safety, some GPS units will “lock down” when the vehicle is in motion; others accept voice commands.
· Integrated Bluetooth for handsfree calling
· Integration with AAA or other roadside assistance service
· Option to store favorite locations
· Ability to search for and route to points of interest as well as by address
· Option to choose different forms of navigation (fastest route, most use of highways, etc.)
· Integration with data about current traffic conditions
· Up-to-date and comprehensive information about roads and locations
· Latitude and longitude coordinates, and detailed street maps
· Ability to connect the device to a computer or insert a DVD/CD and update maps and data
· Automatic rerouting when you veer off course
· Touchscreen controls
· Music and picture storage
· Vehicle-mount kit (usually a powerful suction cup); keep in mind that to work effectively, a GPS device’s antenna must have an unobstructed view of the sky
Who Should Buy a GPS-Enabled Device?
Investing in GPS may be a smart move if you:
· Have a company that depends on delivery, transit, or business travel
· Are new to the area
· Are prone to taking wrong turns or losing your bearings
· Like to know in advance what driving action you will need to take
· Tend to run late
· Live in an area that is not remote, heavily wooded or an urban jungle
· Spend a lot of time on the road or travelling by bike or on foot
· Get stressed when driving
· Enjoy off-roading or exploring new terrain
· Are planning a road trip or to rent a car in an unfamiliar location
If you are intrigued by GPS but not sure you want to put a lot of money into your first purchase, consider buying a refurbished model. These devices have been returned to the manufacturer, often for minor problems, and restored to the same quality standards as new units. You may be able to save up to 50% on models that have been discontinued or refurbished.
15 Smart Uses for a GPS-Enabled Device
1. Drive yourself and others with increased safety and more confidence
2. Install in your business’ delivery vans to make efficient use of time and gas
3. Hop in the SUV and drive the kids straight to a new friend’s birthday party – hassle free
4. Use on your boat (or a friend’s) to locate a favorite saltwater fishing spot
5. Tuck in your backpack when on a bike ride to try a different route home
6. Find the nearest diner on a road trip in your RV
7. Locate the nearest home improvement store on the day you move into your new house
8. Carry in your pocket to keep your bearings while on a nature walk
9. Avoid being the last one to arrive at the 8 a.m. meeting
10. Get roadside assistance with the touch of a button
11. Make phone calls from your car when your cell phone battery dies
12. Swing by and get some roses at the nearest florist on your way to pick up your date
13. Check out that excellent Mexican restaurant your sister mentioned she ate at last week
14. Drive the rental car to Las Vegas from Chicago in record time
15. Spend more time selling to clients and less time on the road
Relying on technology to help you find your way may seem like a luxury. But in fact, using GPS can provide you with so many benefits that you will likely be able to afford more luxury. A GPS-enabled device such as a portable GPS unit or cell phone can save you time, gas and money while preventing headaches – whether you purchase it for business or personal use.
Global Positioning Systems communicate your current location to satellites in orbit, which then feed navigation information to the GPS-enabled device in your car, delivery van, RV, boat, semi-tractor trailer, ATV backpack or jacket pocket.
Types of GPS-enabled devices include:
· Units for in-dash installation in a vehicle
· Portable full-featured units
· Portable no-frills models
· Handheld devices for hikers, bikers and tourists on foot
· PDAs with integrated receivers or equipped with add-on adapters
· Cell phones
Features to Consider
New, clever enhancements are being made to GPS systems every day. Although the following features are common, they show up in many combinations, so be sure to compare products thoroughly. Take the time to review ratings carefully, too – there’s nothing like having a GPS to know how well it works.
· Voice guided driving directions (so drivers don’t have to look at the display screen)
· If installed or mounted in a vehicle, drivers should only use the touch screen when at a stop. For your driving safety, some GPS units will “lock down” when the vehicle is in motion; others accept voice commands.
· Integrated Bluetooth for handsfree calling
· Integration with AAA or other roadside assistance service
· Option to store favorite locations
· Ability to search for and route to points of interest as well as by address
· Option to choose different forms of navigation (fastest route, most use of highways, etc.)
· Integration with data about current traffic conditions
· Up-to-date and comprehensive information about roads and locations
· Latitude and longitude coordinates, and detailed street maps
· Ability to connect the device to a computer or insert a DVD/CD and update maps and data
· Automatic rerouting when you veer off course
· Touchscreen controls
· Music and picture storage
· Vehicle-mount kit (usually a powerful suction cup); keep in mind that to work effectively, a GPS device’s antenna must have an unobstructed view of the sky
Who Should Buy a GPS-Enabled Device?
Investing in GPS may be a smart move if you:
· Have a company that depends on delivery, transit, or business travel
· Are new to the area
· Are prone to taking wrong turns or losing your bearings
· Like to know in advance what driving action you will need to take
· Tend to run late
· Live in an area that is not remote, heavily wooded or an urban jungle
· Spend a lot of time on the road or travelling by bike or on foot
· Get stressed when driving
· Enjoy off-roading or exploring new terrain
· Are planning a road trip or to rent a car in an unfamiliar location
If you are intrigued by GPS but not sure you want to put a lot of money into your first purchase, consider buying a refurbished model. These devices have been returned to the manufacturer, often for minor problems, and restored to the same quality standards as new units. You may be able to save up to 50% on models that have been discontinued or refurbished.
Operational amplifier : OP-AMP
An operational amplifier, often called an op-amp , is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with differential inputs[1] and, usually, a single output. Typically the output of the op-amp is controlled either by negative feedback, which largely determines the magnitude of its output voltage gain, or by positive feedback, which facilitates regenerative gain and oscillation. High input impedance at the input terminals and low output impedance are important typical characteristics.
Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being used in a vast array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Many standard IC op-amps cost only a few cents in moderate production volume; however some integrated or hybrid operational amplifiers with special performance specifications may cost over $100 US in small quantities.
Modern designs are electronically more rugged than earlier implementations and some can sustain direct short-circuits on their outputs without damage.
The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of differential amplifier include the fully differential amplifier (similar to the op-amp, but with 2 outputs), the instrumentation amplifier (usually built from 3 op-amps), the isolation amplifier (similar to the instrumentation amplifier, but which works fine with common-mode voltages that would destroy an ordinary op-amp), and negative feedback amplifier (usually built from 1 or more op-amps and a resistive feedback network).
Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being used in a vast array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Many standard IC op-amps cost only a few cents in moderate production volume; however some integrated or hybrid operational amplifiers with special performance specifications may cost over $100 US in small quantities.
Modern designs are electronically more rugged than earlier implementations and some can sustain direct short-circuits on their outputs without damage.
The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of differential amplifier include the fully differential amplifier (similar to the op-amp, but with 2 outputs), the instrumentation amplifier (usually built from 3 op-amps), the isolation amplifier (similar to the instrumentation amplifier, but which works fine with common-mode voltages that would destroy an ordinary op-amp), and negative feedback amplifier (usually built from 1 or more op-amps and a resistive feedback network).
Saturday, October 18, 2008
Load cell
A load cell is an electronic device (transducer) that is used to convert a force into an electrical signal. This conversion is indirect and happens in two stages. Through a mechanical arrangement, the force being sensed deforms a strain gauge. The strain gauge converts the deformation (strain) to electrical signals. A load cell usually consists of four strain gauges in a Wheatstone bridge configuration. Load cells of one or two strain gauges are also available. The electrical signal output is typically in the order of a few millivolts and requires amplification by an instrumentation amplifier before it can be used. The output of the transducer is plugged into an algorithm to calculate the force applied to the transducer.
Although strain gauge load cells are the most common, there are other types of load cells as well. In industrial applications, hydraulic (or hydrostatic) is probably the second most common, and these are utilized to eliminate some problems with strain gauge load cell devices. As an example, a hydraulic load cell is immune to transient voltages (lightning) so might be a more effective device in outdoor environments.
Other types include piezo-electric load cells (useful for dynamic measurements of force), and vibrating wire load cells, which are useful in geomechanical applications due to low amounts of drift.
Every load cell is subject to "ringing" when subjected to abrupt load changes. This stems from the spring-like behavior of load cells. In order to measure the loads, they have to deform. As such, a load cell of finite stiffness must have spring-like behavior, exhibiting vibrations at its natural frequency. An oscillating data pattern can be the result of ringing. Ringing can be suppressed in a limited fashion by passive means. Alternatively, a control system can use an actuator to actively damp out the ringing of a load cell. This method offers better performance at a cost of significant increase in complexity.
Load cell types
Applications
Although strain gauge load cells are the most common, there are other types of load cells as well. In industrial applications, hydraulic (or hydrostatic) is probably the second most common, and these are utilized to eliminate some problems with strain gauge load cell devices. As an example, a hydraulic load cell is immune to transient voltages (lightning) so might be a more effective device in outdoor environments.
Other types include piezo-electric load cells (useful for dynamic measurements of force), and vibrating wire load cells, which are useful in geomechanical applications due to low amounts of drift.
Every load cell is subject to "ringing" when subjected to abrupt load changes. This stems from the spring-like behavior of load cells. In order to measure the loads, they have to deform. As such, a load cell of finite stiffness must have spring-like behavior, exhibiting vibrations at its natural frequency. An oscillating data pattern can be the result of ringing. Ringing can be suppressed in a limited fashion by passive means. Alternatively, a control system can use an actuator to actively damp out the ringing of a load cell. This method offers better performance at a cost of significant increase in complexity.
Load cell types
- double ended shear beam
- single ended shear beam
- single column
- multi column
- membrane
- torsion ring
- bending ring
- pancake
- digital ElectroMotive Force
Applications
- electronic crane scales
- finding the center of gravity of an object by weight
- force measurement
- Force gauge
- hopper, tank and vessel weighing
- onboard weighing
- railcar weighing
- structural health monitoring
- tension measurement
- in- motion dynamic check weighers check weigher
- truck weighing
- wireless crane scales
- "S" Type
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