As the world advances, new technologies arise - or, in some cases, older technologies are exhumed and improved upon.
Although most people are under the impression that the field of photovoltaics is a new subject, based on recent invention, this is not actually the case. But first of all lets take a look at what "photovoltaic" means.
The word "photovoltaics" can be split up in to two parts: "photo" and "votlaic". The term "photo" is derived from the Greek word "phos" which means "light." A "volt" is a measurement unit for electrical force. So, literally, "photovoltaic" means "electricity through light." And that is exactly what the word means: "capturing solar energy in the form of light and converting it into electricity."
So how do we convert sunlight into solar energy and electricity?
In order to convert sunlight into electricity you need to use a material called a "semiconductor".
In simple terms, a semiconductor is a material that acts as an insulator, but is also able to conduct electricity under certain conditions. We employ the characteristics of semiconductors when we convert solar energy (in the form of sunlight) into electricity. It is done as follows:
When a semiconductor (such as silicon) is exposed to sunlight, it releases small amounts of electrical energy. This is due to the process that occurs when electrons (bits of electricity) leave the surface of the semiconductor, as a result of being hit by light. We call this the "photoelectric effect."
Sunlight is made up of "photons", which are particles of solar energy. Not all photons are the same and not all carry the same amount of energy. A simple explanation for this is that light comes in many colors. Some forms of light are visible to the eye, while some forms are invisible (such as ultraviolet or infrared light). But, regardless of color or visibility, the fact remains that light is still light and the basic particle of light is still a photon.
When a photon hits a photovoltaic cell (also called a "PV cell" for short) one of three things occurs:
1. The photon can be reflected by the photovoltaic cell
2. The photon can be absorbed by the photovoltaic cell
3. Or (believe it or not) the photon can even pass right the photovoltaic cell. Only the photons which are absorbed by the photovoltaic cell are converted into solar energy (in the form of electricity).
When a photon is absorbed by the semiconductor (the material in the photovoltaic cell which produces electricity) the solar energy of the photon is passed to an electron in one of the atoms of the semiconductor. With this additional energy the electron is able to break away from its atom. Thus an electrical current is established.
This is the simplicity of what occurs in a photoelectric cell, when sunlight is converted into electricity. The electricity so produced can now be power an electrical device.
As you can see, the field of photovoltaics consists of the technology and the principles we use to convert solar energy into a usable form.
- Photovoltaic Systems
Now that we know what a photovoltaic cell is and how it works, lets take this a step further and take a look at what a photovoltaic system is.
A photovoltaic system has consists of the following components:
- A "photovoltaic module", or "pv module". This is a group of photovoltaic cells connected together. It is commonly referred to as a solar panel, though the terms "PV module" and "solar charger" are used to describe it as well.
- One or more batteries to collect and store the solar energy, which was converted into electricity by the PV modules (or solar panels, solar chargers, or whatever you choose to call them).
- A "charge controller". This an electrical device which prevents the batteries from being ruined through overcharging, and which also prevents electrical current from flowing back out of the battery into the PV module or solar panel.
- "An inverter." An inverter an electrical device which changes the electricity produced by the PV modules into alternating current. Alternating current is the type of electricity you get from your wall sockets at home. An inverter is only used with PV systems when you want to produce alternating current as your end result. If you run your house on solar energy, the inverter is installed between the batteries and the fuse panel.
A good quality PV system will operate for more than twenty years. The PV module, having no moving parts, has an expected lifetime exceeding thirty years. Most system problems occur due to poor or sloppy installation.
So how much electricity does a photovoltaic system generate?
The average PV system will generate about 180 kilowatt-hours per square meter, in most areas of the United States.
A photovoltaic system rated at 1 kilowatt will produce 1800 kilowatt hours per year.
In case you are not clear on what a "kilowatt-hour" is, this is a way of measuring the amount of electricity produced or consumed.
Let me put it in monetary terms, which might be easier to understand. Many photovoltaic panels are guaranteed to last a minimum of twenty years - and in fact, most claim to last thirty years. Even if we factor in the natural loss of efficiency in the PV modules over a period of twenty to thirty years, a PV system will generate close to 36,000 Kilowatt-hours in twenty years and 54,000 kilowatt hours over thirty years.
This is the equivalent of $10,000 worth of electricity at current energy prices.
Therefore, though initial installation of a PV system might seem a little costly, in the long run it is far cheaper to run on solar energy.
There are different types and sizes of solar panels (photovoltaic cells) which produce varying amounts of solar power.
Saturday, December 13, 2008
Solar Cells and Photovoltaic Energy
As the world advances, new technologies arise - or, in some cases, older technologies are exhumed and improved upon.
Although most people are under the impression that the field of photovoltaics is a new subject, based on recent invention, this is not actually the case. But first of all lets take a look at what "photovoltaic" means.
The word "photovoltaics" can be split up in to two parts: "photo" and "votlaic". The term "photo" is derived from the Greek word "phos" which means "light." A "volt" is a measurement unit for electrical force. So, literally, "photovoltaic" means "electricity through light." And that is exactly what the word means: "capturing solar energy in the form of light and converting it into electricity."
So how do we convert sunlight into solar energy and electricity?
In order to convert sunlight into electricity you need to use a material called a "semiconductor".
In simple terms, a semiconductor is a material that acts as an insulator, but is also able to conduct electricity under certain conditions. We employ the characteristics of semiconductors when we convert solar energy (in the form of sunlight) into electricity. It is done as follows:
When a semiconductor (such as silicon) is exposed to sunlight, it releases small amounts of electrical energy. This is due to the process that occurs when electrons (bits of electricity) leave the surface of the semiconductor, as a result of being hit by light. We call this the "photoelectric effect."
Sunlight is made up of "photons", which are particles of solar energy. Not all photons are the same and not all carry the same amount of energy. A simple explanation for this is that light comes in many colors. Some forms of light are visible to the eye, while some forms are invisible (such as ultraviolet or infrared light). But, regardless of color or visibility, the fact remains that light is still light and the basic particle of light is still a photon.
When a photon hits a photovoltaic cell (also called a "PV cell" for short) one of three things occurs:
1. The photon can be reflected by the photovoltaic cell
2. The photon can be absorbed by the photovoltaic cell
3. Or (believe it or not) the photon can even pass right the photovoltaic cell. Only the photons which are absorbed by the photovoltaic cell are converted into solar energy (in the form of electricity).
When a photon is absorbed by the semiconductor (the material in the photovoltaic cell which produces electricity) the solar energy of the photon is passed to an electron in one of the atoms of the semiconductor. With this additional energy the electron is able to break away from its atom. Thus an electrical current is established.
This is the simplicity of what occurs in a photoelectric cell, when sunlight is converted into electricity. The electricity so produced can now be power an electrical device.
As you can see, the field of photovoltaics consists of the technology and the principles we use to convert solar energy into a usable form.
- Photovoltaic Systems
Now that we know what a photovoltaic cell is and how it works, lets take this a step further and take a look at what a photovoltaic system is.
A photovoltaic system has consists of the following components:
- A "photovoltaic module", or "pv module". This is a group of photovoltaic cells connected together. It is commonly referred to as a solar panel, though the terms "PV module" and "solar charger" are used to describe it as well.
- One or more batteries to collect and store the solar energy, which was converted into electricity by the PV modules (or solar panels, solar chargers, or whatever you choose to call them).
- A "charge controller". This an electrical device which prevents the batteries from being ruined through overcharging, and which also prevents electrical current from flowing back out of the battery into the PV module or solar panel.
- "An inverter." An inverter an electrical device which changes the electricity produced by the PV modules into alternating current. Alternating current is the type of electricity you get from your wall sockets at home. An inverter is only used with PV systems when you want to produce alternating current as your end result. If you run your house on solar energy, the inverter is installed between the batteries and the fuse panel.
A good quality PV system will operate for more than twenty years. The PV module, having no moving parts, has an expected lifetime exceeding thirty years. Most system problems occur due to poor or sloppy installation.
So how much electricity does a photovoltaic system generate?
The average PV system will generate about 180 kilowatt-hours per square meter, in most areas of the United States.
A photovoltaic system rated at 1 kilowatt will produce 1800 kilowatt hours per year.
In case you are not clear on what a "kilowatt-hour" is, this is a way of measuring the amount of electricity produced or consumed.
Let me put it in monetary terms, which might be easier to understand. Many photovoltaic panels are guaranteed to last a minimum of twenty years - and in fact, most claim to last thirty years. Even if we factor in the natural loss of efficiency in the PV modules over a period of twenty to thirty years, a PV system will generate close to 36,000 Kilowatt-hours in twenty years and 54,000 kilowatt hours over thirty years.
This is the equivalent of $10,000 worth of electricity at current energy prices.
Therefore, though initial installation of a PV system might seem a little costly, in the long run it is far cheaper to run on solar energy.
There are different types and sizes of solar panels (photovoltaic cells) which produce varying amounts of solar power.
Although most people are under the impression that the field of photovoltaics is a new subject, based on recent invention, this is not actually the case. But first of all lets take a look at what "photovoltaic" means.
The word "photovoltaics" can be split up in to two parts: "photo" and "votlaic". The term "photo" is derived from the Greek word "phos" which means "light." A "volt" is a measurement unit for electrical force. So, literally, "photovoltaic" means "electricity through light." And that is exactly what the word means: "capturing solar energy in the form of light and converting it into electricity."
So how do we convert sunlight into solar energy and electricity?
In order to convert sunlight into electricity you need to use a material called a "semiconductor".
In simple terms, a semiconductor is a material that acts as an insulator, but is also able to conduct electricity under certain conditions. We employ the characteristics of semiconductors when we convert solar energy (in the form of sunlight) into electricity. It is done as follows:
When a semiconductor (such as silicon) is exposed to sunlight, it releases small amounts of electrical energy. This is due to the process that occurs when electrons (bits of electricity) leave the surface of the semiconductor, as a result of being hit by light. We call this the "photoelectric effect."
Sunlight is made up of "photons", which are particles of solar energy. Not all photons are the same and not all carry the same amount of energy. A simple explanation for this is that light comes in many colors. Some forms of light are visible to the eye, while some forms are invisible (such as ultraviolet or infrared light). But, regardless of color or visibility, the fact remains that light is still light and the basic particle of light is still a photon.
When a photon hits a photovoltaic cell (also called a "PV cell" for short) one of three things occurs:
1. The photon can be reflected by the photovoltaic cell
2. The photon can be absorbed by the photovoltaic cell
3. Or (believe it or not) the photon can even pass right the photovoltaic cell. Only the photons which are absorbed by the photovoltaic cell are converted into solar energy (in the form of electricity).
When a photon is absorbed by the semiconductor (the material in the photovoltaic cell which produces electricity) the solar energy of the photon is passed to an electron in one of the atoms of the semiconductor. With this additional energy the electron is able to break away from its atom. Thus an electrical current is established.
This is the simplicity of what occurs in a photoelectric cell, when sunlight is converted into electricity. The electricity so produced can now be power an electrical device.
As you can see, the field of photovoltaics consists of the technology and the principles we use to convert solar energy into a usable form.
- Photovoltaic Systems
Now that we know what a photovoltaic cell is and how it works, lets take this a step further and take a look at what a photovoltaic system is.
A photovoltaic system has consists of the following components:
- A "photovoltaic module", or "pv module". This is a group of photovoltaic cells connected together. It is commonly referred to as a solar panel, though the terms "PV module" and "solar charger" are used to describe it as well.
- One or more batteries to collect and store the solar energy, which was converted into electricity by the PV modules (or solar panels, solar chargers, or whatever you choose to call them).
- A "charge controller". This an electrical device which prevents the batteries from being ruined through overcharging, and which also prevents electrical current from flowing back out of the battery into the PV module or solar panel.
- "An inverter." An inverter an electrical device which changes the electricity produced by the PV modules into alternating current. Alternating current is the type of electricity you get from your wall sockets at home. An inverter is only used with PV systems when you want to produce alternating current as your end result. If you run your house on solar energy, the inverter is installed between the batteries and the fuse panel.
A good quality PV system will operate for more than twenty years. The PV module, having no moving parts, has an expected lifetime exceeding thirty years. Most system problems occur due to poor or sloppy installation.
So how much electricity does a photovoltaic system generate?
The average PV system will generate about 180 kilowatt-hours per square meter, in most areas of the United States.
A photovoltaic system rated at 1 kilowatt will produce 1800 kilowatt hours per year.
In case you are not clear on what a "kilowatt-hour" is, this is a way of measuring the amount of electricity produced or consumed.
Let me put it in monetary terms, which might be easier to understand. Many photovoltaic panels are guaranteed to last a minimum of twenty years - and in fact, most claim to last thirty years. Even if we factor in the natural loss of efficiency in the PV modules over a period of twenty to thirty years, a PV system will generate close to 36,000 Kilowatt-hours in twenty years and 54,000 kilowatt hours over thirty years.
This is the equivalent of $10,000 worth of electricity at current energy prices.
Therefore, though initial installation of a PV system might seem a little costly, in the long run it is far cheaper to run on solar energy.
There are different types and sizes of solar panels (photovoltaic cells) which produce varying amounts of solar power.
Wednesday, November 26, 2008
A Word About Wifi or Wi-fi Technology
WiFi is the other name for wireless internet or wireless network, this name is mostly used by none technical users who just knows how to access internet wirelessly, they know pretty much nothing beyond that. WiFi is basically short form for wireless fidelity. However many advance users are not well aware of this terminology either, it is ,more known with a name of Wifi. WiFi term is written in many ways which are, Wifi, WiFi, WIFI, Wi-Fi fiwi etc.
Wi-Fi was introduced by Wi-Fi alliance in 1985 it was the time when it was not used as commercially but were just set to certain organizations for testing purposes. Wi-Fi Alliance is pioneer in developing WiFi technology and all the hardware associated with Wifi is mostly certified by Wifi Alliance compliance. Wifi later developed properly and than eventually lunched for public use in USA in 90’s, gradually wifi become standards for most of the computer communications in countless organizations around the world.
Wifi uses all the networks referring to any type of 802.11 network standards which is set by IEEE. IEEE is short form of Institute of electric and electronic engineering. There are lots of enhancements made in standards of 802.11 and 802.11a, 802.11b and other dual networks. The latest standard of 802.11 family is 802.11y. Other known standards are 802.16, these are the standards for upcoming technology known to be WiMax. There is one more known set of standards for Ethernet it is known to be IEEE 802.3.
Growth of Wifi networks is still on going world wide this huge growth raises security issues. Wifi is the most widely used network world wide and many organizations transfer their sensitive data using Wireless networks. Increased use of Wireless network increases potentially risks of the security of the users or organization. Wireless network carries data of every type, that can be normal data in bits of information or it can encrypted or even highly sensitive. WiFi security mechanism insures the certain level of data integrity and confidentiality just as wired network provides. However if proper security measures are not adopted properly intruders can attack the network and can cause major damage to not only network but privacy of users also.
There was a time when cables were used to network many computers together. Hardware like routers, hubs, switches etc were required for communication between computers, but Wifi brought high tech change in communication of computers by providing wireless connectivity features. It just keeps things very simple without much hassle and networks can be made far more easily. No wires are required. Wireless network keeps environment very neat and clean. There are many other features of Wireless LANs for example high speed connectivity. Wifi provides high speed connectivity and faster communication where cables are not feasible to install for example in remote areas. The list of the Wifi features is long some other major features included Site survey, enterprise grade equipment, Scalable systems, VPN Compatibility, flexible authentication methods, Guest satisfaction, End user mobility and easy access through Hotspots.
WiFi supports two different types of modes; they are known to be infrastructure and the other one is ad hoc. In Ad hoc Wireless connections can be made without central device called router or access point. Most network administrators prefer ad hoc over infrastructure mode. Ad hoc how ever have issues also. Wifi devices connected using Ad hoc mode offers less security against unauthorized users. Ad hoc mode configured devices cannot disable SSID broadcast in contrast to infrastructure mode, this brings hackers into play, and using ad hoc mode it is not very difficult to prevail into the wireless network. There are two major differences between these two modes that is the rate at which they transfer data. Wife network standard 802.11g requires Ad hoc mode of communication to support 11Mbps bandwidth in contrast to it 54Mbps data transfer is supported using infrastructure mode. Hence Ad hoc mode is considered much slower than Infrastructure mode.
Wireless based networks are increasing every where; every organization is installing it if it was not using it before. Some cities have actually provided the entire city a wifi and turn the city into hotspot, big example in front of us is Chicago. Chicago have installed huge transmitter in shape of big size dish of Wifi which broadcast Wireless LAN radio signals through out the city. It provides high speed internet connectivity very cheaply. Laptops, desktop computers, PDAs and other Wireless LAN card installed devices can access the network and get high speed connectivity on move. WiFi users increasing day by day therefore its hardware manufacturers are manufacturing the products on huge scale. These products are easily available in market with reasonable cost. Laptops, PDAs, mother boards of latest desktop computer are mostly come with build in wireless LAN cards. If it is not installed already in your laptop one can buy PCMCI slot wifi card to install for accessing wireless network. Wifi PCI cards are also widely available in market. Now USB wifi are also available for short range but still works good.
Intelligent routers are available in market which works to connect different devices to wireless network. These routers can be configured with or without PC. All is required to plug internet cable in Ethernet or USB port to router’s appropriate port. When internet is available to routers it can be configured using its control panel using IP 192.168.1.1. That’s where we can enable SSID broadcasting or disable it and perform other functions. PCs can also be attached to routers for more advance management which routers can not performs. PCs are mostly required to be used where network is huge and keeping and maintaining its integrity and stability is very important.
In this modern era every one wants every thing wireless, Wifi belongs to wireless technology family. There are so many other wireless technologies which have evolved around the time and Wifi is now taken for granted and world is now talking about much advanced and enhanced wireless network known to be WiMax. WiMax beats Wifi technology on many bases which includes Speed at which data rate is transferred, range with which connection is made and so much more. Now we have to see in how much time WiMax will take over WiFi, and which technology will eventually take over WiMax. One thing is for sure latest technologies in wireless technology will keep coming and will keep getting over looked by new ones.
Mobile Phone Network
The breakthrough in wireless technology has arrived with the introduction of the Mobile Phone. The need for fast and effective communication sparing no time loss is what has brought the birth of the Mobile Phone. The mobile phone network strives to promote the mobile into the home of every individual. The mobile phone network reaches out to all corners of the world. There is continuous progress to get the wireless connection in even the remotest areas for the signal is something weak or the wireless is unable to make connection with the mobile phone. But ninety percent of the wireless network works like a charm. The mobile phone network continues to work on providing the signals in the remote areas.
The Mobile Phone Network and the Internet
You can browse the Internet for the various mobile phone networks available in your country. There are many networks that provide national and international wireless connection with your mobile. The mobile phone network offers deals and good tariff rates and plans to suit each customer. There are mobile phone brands that have a tie-up with the mobile phone network and you can select the network and the mobile brand in accordance with the offer by the mobile phone dealers. There are many mobile phone networks and mobile phones that interact and this could leave you confused but at the internet station you can take your time to study the various features and deal of phones and mobile phone networks before you decide on the best mobile phone network for you.
The Mobile Phone Network and the Mobile Phone
The mobile phone network works in collaboration with the mobile phone. There are many kinds of mobile phone networks that are available in almost every country. Some of the main networks are O2, T Mobile, 3G, Vodafone and Orange among others. The leading mobile phone networks provide many exciting deals for the customers and likewise promote the brand of the mobile as provided by the mobile phone manufacturers.
The Mobile Phone Network and the Internet
You can browse the Internet for the various mobile phone networks available in your country. There are many networks that provide national and international wireless connection with your mobile. The mobile phone network offers deals and good tariff rates and plans to suit each customer. There are mobile phone brands that have a tie-up with the mobile phone network and you can select the network and the mobile brand in accordance with the offer by the mobile phone dealers. There are many mobile phone networks and mobile phones that interact and this could leave you confused but at the internet station you can take your time to study the various features and deal of phones and mobile phone networks before you decide on the best mobile phone network for you.
The Mobile Phone Network and the Mobile Phone
The mobile phone network works in collaboration with the mobile phone. There are many kinds of mobile phone networks that are available in almost every country. Some of the main networks are O2, T Mobile, 3G, Vodafone and Orange among others. The leading mobile phone networks provide many exciting deals for the customers and likewise promote the brand of the mobile as provided by the mobile phone manufacturers.
Sunday, November 16, 2008
Inkjet Cartridges Overview
Inkjet cartridges came into light in about 1980, to print images on blank paper. These cartridges can be slightly more expensive when compared to other types of ink cartridges, because they have the capability to be refilled.
Inkjet cartridges are used to visualize images or any print transaction, and other activities related to printers. These inkjet cartridges work along with inkjet printers. By using these cartridges, the inkjet printer places small droplets onto blank paper via nozzles to develop any image or text. The amount of the droplet depends on the printer driver software that is systematized to place the droplets. The cartridge has various colors as in liquid form to develop a colorful/black and white image on printable paper.
Inkjet printers are capable of printing stickers, labels, posters, and documents, etc by using inkjet cartridges. Nowadays, these printers are also being used to develop attractive images on shoes, T-shirts, etc.
The drops of ink that come out from the inkjet cartridge to create images are generally between 50 to 60 microns. These cartridges come in different varieties, in various brands along with different options. The cost of these cartridges depends on their qualities and brands.
Since there are so many works which can be performed by inkjet printers, it is necessary to have complete information before purchasing the right inkjet cartridges.
The inkjet cartridge should be made by appropriate materials that not only increase the productivity level, but also offer better and quality prints. Therefore, never purchase local or average inkjet cartridges, because such cartridges may create problems for the nozzles of the printer. A well-suited and branded inkjet cartridge, especially ISO standard, can be more efficient and better than other cartridges that are available in the market.
Mostly, inkjet cartridges come in their individual sizes, which are designed to fit with a particular printer only. Any typical size of cartridge may cause damage to the printer's nozzles. Always purchase an inkjet cartridge with its warranty (minimum one year). Most printers come with a warranty period, but in some cases the warranty can be canceled if the cartridges that are used in it are made by a different manufacturer. So, for the continuity of the warranty, it is essential that both the printer and the cartridges are designed by the same manufacturer.
Although online shopping is the easiest way to buy any product without going to the shops, always be careful when you are buying inkjet cartridges online. If you choose to buy online, be sure about the credibility of the site that you are buying from, so that you don't purchase low quality cartridges.
It is best to compare the prices of various inkjet cartridges at different shops, as there may be a high difference between the prices of the same product in two different stores.
The importance of printers cannot be denied, but this does not mean that you should compromise on the quality. You may take a little bit more time in comparing and then purchasing an inkjet cartridge, but make sure that you are opting for the best one in the market.
Inkjet cartridges are used to visualize images or any print transaction, and other activities related to printers. These inkjet cartridges work along with inkjet printers. By using these cartridges, the inkjet printer places small droplets onto blank paper via nozzles to develop any image or text. The amount of the droplet depends on the printer driver software that is systematized to place the droplets. The cartridge has various colors as in liquid form to develop a colorful/black and white image on printable paper.
Inkjet printers are capable of printing stickers, labels, posters, and documents, etc by using inkjet cartridges. Nowadays, these printers are also being used to develop attractive images on shoes, T-shirts, etc.
The drops of ink that come out from the inkjet cartridge to create images are generally between 50 to 60 microns. These cartridges come in different varieties, in various brands along with different options. The cost of these cartridges depends on their qualities and brands.
Since there are so many works which can be performed by inkjet printers, it is necessary to have complete information before purchasing the right inkjet cartridges.
The inkjet cartridge should be made by appropriate materials that not only increase the productivity level, but also offer better and quality prints. Therefore, never purchase local or average inkjet cartridges, because such cartridges may create problems for the nozzles of the printer. A well-suited and branded inkjet cartridge, especially ISO standard, can be more efficient and better than other cartridges that are available in the market.
Mostly, inkjet cartridges come in their individual sizes, which are designed to fit with a particular printer only. Any typical size of cartridge may cause damage to the printer's nozzles. Always purchase an inkjet cartridge with its warranty (minimum one year). Most printers come with a warranty period, but in some cases the warranty can be canceled if the cartridges that are used in it are made by a different manufacturer. So, for the continuity of the warranty, it is essential that both the printer and the cartridges are designed by the same manufacturer.
Although online shopping is the easiest way to buy any product without going to the shops, always be careful when you are buying inkjet cartridges online. If you choose to buy online, be sure about the credibility of the site that you are buying from, so that you don't purchase low quality cartridges.
It is best to compare the prices of various inkjet cartridges at different shops, as there may be a high difference between the prices of the same product in two different stores.
The importance of printers cannot be denied, but this does not mean that you should compromise on the quality. You may take a little bit more time in comparing and then purchasing an inkjet cartridge, but make sure that you are opting for the best one in the market.
How Do Inkjet Printers Work
The printers utilizing inkjet technology were first introduced in the late 1980s and since then have gained much popularity while growing in performance and dropping in price. They are the most common type of computer printers for the general consumer due to their low cost, high quality of output, capability of printing in vivid color, and ease of use. Each printer which works on inkjet technology places extremely small droplets of ink onto paper to create a text or an image.
In the personal and small business computer market, inkjet printers currently predominate. Inkjets are usually inexpensive, quiet, reasonably fast, and many models can produce high quality output. Like most modern technologies, the present-day inkjet is built on the progress made by many earlier versions. Among many contributors, Epson, Hewlett-Packard and Canon can claim a substantial share of credit for the development of the modern inkjet technology. In the worldwide consumer market, four manufacturers account for the majority of inkjet printer sales: Canon, Hewlett-Packard, Epson, and Lexmark.
The typical inkjet printer usually includes inkjet printhead assembly, paper feed assembly, power supply, control circuitry and interface ports.
The inkjet printhead assembly contains several components. One of them is the printhead which is the core of the inkjet printer and contains a series of nozzles that are used to spray drops of ink. Another printhead component is the inkjet cartridge or inkjet tank. Depending on the manufacturer and model of the printer, ink cartridges come in various combinations, such as separate black and color cartridges, color and black in a single cartridge or even a cartridge for each ink color. The cartridges of some inkjet printers include the print head itself. The printhead along with the inkjet cartridge/s are moved back and forth across the paper by device called a stepper motor using a special belt. Some printers have an additional stepper motor to park the print head assembly when the printer is not in use which means that the print head assembly is restricted from accidentally moving. The print head assembly uses a stabilizer bar to ensure that movement is precise and controlled.
One of the paper feed assembly components is the paper tray or/and paper feeder. Most inkjet printers have a tray that the paper is loaded into. The feeder typically snaps open at an angle on the back of the printer, allowing the paper to be placed in it. Feeders generally do not hold as much paper as a traditional paper tray. A set of rollers pull the paper in from the tray or feeder and advance the paper when the print head assembly is ready for another pass after which another step motor powers the rollers to move the paper in the exact increment needed to ensure a continuous image is printed.
While earlier printers often had an external transformer, most printers sold today use a standard power supply that is incorporated into the printer itself.
A small but sophisticated amount of circuitry is built into the printer to control all the mechanical aspects of operation, as well as decode the information sent to the printer from the computer. It is connected to the computer by a cable through the interface port. The interface port can be either parallel port, USB port or SCSI port. The parallel port is still used by many printers, but most newer printers use the USB port. A few printers connect using a serial port or small computer system interface (SCSI) port.
Different types of inkjet printers exist based on the method they use to deliver the droplets of ink. There are three main inkjet technologies currently used by printer manufacturers. The thermal bubble technology used by manufacturers such as Canon and Hewlett Packard is commonly referred to as bubble jet. In a thermal inkjet printer, tiny resistors create heat, and this heat vaporizes ink to create a bubble. As the bubble expands, some of the ink is pushed out of a nozzle onto the paper. When the bubble collapses, a vacuum is created. This pulls more ink into the print head from the cartridge. A typical bubble jet print head has 300 or 600 tiny nozzles, and all of them can fire a droplet simultaneously. Thermal inkjet technology is used almost exclusively in the consumer inkjet printer market. The ink used is usually water-based, pigment-based or dye-based but the print head is produced usually at less cost than other ink jet technologies.
Contrary to the bubble jet technology, the piezoelectric technology, patented by Epson, uses piezo crystals. A crystal is located at the back of the ink reservoir of each nozzle. The crystal receives a tiny electric charge that causes it to vibrate. When the crystal vibrates inward, it forces a tiny amount of ink out of the nozzle. When it vibrates out, it pulls some more ink into the reservoir to replace the ink sprayed out.
The continuous inkjet method is used commercially for marking and coding of products and packages. The first patent on the idea is from 1867, by William Thomson. The first commercial model was introduced in 1951 by Siemens. In continuous inkjet technology, a high-pressure pump directs liquid ink from a reservoir through a microscopic nozzle, creating a continuous stream of ink droplets. A piezoelectric crystal causes the stream of liquid to break into droplets at regular intervals. The ink droplets are subjected to an electrostatic field created by a charging electrode as they form. The field is varied according to the degree of drop deflection desired. This results in a controlled, variable electrostatic charge on each droplet. Charged droplets are separated by one or more uncharged “guard droplets” to minimize electrostatic repulsion between neighboring droplets. The charged droplets are then directed (deflected) to the receptor material to be printed by electrostatic deflection plates, or are allowed to continue on undeflected to a collection gutter for reuse. Continuous inkjet is one of the oldest inkjet technologies in use and is fairly mature. One of its advantages is the very high velocity (~50 m/s) of the ink droplets, which allows the ink drops to be thrown a long distance to the target. Another advantage is freedom from nozzle clogging as the jet is always in use
When printing is started, the software application sends the data to be printed to the printer driver which translates the data into a format that the printer can understand and checks to see that the printer is online and available to print. The data is sent by the driver from the computer to the printer via the connection interface. The printer receives the data from the computer. It stores a certain amount of data in a buffer. The buffer can range from 512 KB random access memory (RAM) to 16 MB RAM, depending on the printer model. Buffers are useful because they allow the computer to finish with the printing process quickly, instead of having to wait for the actual page to print. If the inkjet printer has been idle for a period of time, it will normally go through a short cleaning cycle to make sure that the print heads are clean. Once the cleaning cycle is complete, the inkjet printer is ready to begin printing. The control circuitry activates the paper feed stepper motor. This engages the rollers, which feed a sheet of paper from the paper tray / feeder into the printer. A small trigger mechanism in the tray / feeder is depressed when there is paper in the tray or feeder. If the trigger is not depressed, the inkjet printer lights up the "Out of Paper" LED and sends an alert to the computer. Once the paper is fed into the inkjet printer and positioned at the start of the page, the print head stepper motor uses the belt to move the print head assembly across the page. The motor pauses for the merest fraction of a second each time that the print head sprays dots of ink on the page and then moves a tiny bit before stopping again. This stepping happens so fast that it seems like a continuous motion. Multiple dots are made at each stop. It sprays the CMYK (cyan / magenta / yellow / black) colors in precise amounts to make any other color imaginable. At the end of each complete pass, the paper feed stepper motor advances the paper a fraction of an inch. Depending on the inkjet printer model, the print head is reset to the beginning side of the page, or, in most cases, simply reverses direction and begins to move back across the page as it prints. This process continues until the page is printed. The time it takes to print a page can vary widely from printer to printer. It will also vary based on the complexity of the page and size of any images on the page. Once the printing is complete, the print heads are parked. The paper feed stepper motor spins the rollers to finish pushing the completed page into the output tray. Most inkjet printers today use inkjet inks that are very fast-drying, so that you can immediately pick up the sheet without smudging it.
Compared to earlier consumer-oriented printers, inkjet printers have a number of advantages. They are quieter in operation than impact dot matrix printers or daisywheel printers. They can print finer, smoother details through higher printhead resolution, and many inkjet printers with photorealistic-quality color printing are widely available. In comparison to more expensive technologies like thermal wax, dye sublimations, and laser printers, the inkjet printers have the advantage of practically no warm-up time and lower cost per page (except when compared to laser printers).
The disadvantages of the inkjet printers include flimsy print heads (prone to clogging) and expensive inkjet cartridges. This typically leads value-minded consumers to consider laser printers for medium-to-high volume printer applications. Other disadvantages include ink bleeding, where ink is carried sideways away from the desired location by the capillary effect; the result is a muddy appearance on some types of paper. Most inkjet printer manufacturers also sell special clay-treated paper designed to reduce bleeding. Because the ink used in most inkjet cartridges and ink tanks is water-soluble, care must be taken with inkjet-printed documents to avoid even the smallest drop of water, which can cause severe "blurring" or "running."
Besides the well known small inkjet printers for home and office, there is a market for professional inkjet printers; some being for page-width format printing, and most being for wide format printing. "Page-width format" means that the print width ranges from about 8.5" to 37". "Wide format" means that these are inkjet printers ranging in print width from 24" up to 15'. The application of the page-width inkjet printers is for printing high-volume business communications that have a lesser need for flashy layout and color. Particularly with the addition of variable data technologies, the page-width inkjet printers are important in billing, tagging, and individualized catalogs and newspapers. The application of most of the wide format inkjet printers is for printing advertising graphics; a minor application is printing of designs by architects or engineers.
In the personal and small business computer market, inkjet printers currently predominate. Inkjets are usually inexpensive, quiet, reasonably fast, and many models can produce high quality output. Like most modern technologies, the present-day inkjet is built on the progress made by many earlier versions. Among many contributors, Epson, Hewlett-Packard and Canon can claim a substantial share of credit for the development of the modern inkjet technology. In the worldwide consumer market, four manufacturers account for the majority of inkjet printer sales: Canon, Hewlett-Packard, Epson, and Lexmark.
The typical inkjet printer usually includes inkjet printhead assembly, paper feed assembly, power supply, control circuitry and interface ports.
The inkjet printhead assembly contains several components. One of them is the printhead which is the core of the inkjet printer and contains a series of nozzles that are used to spray drops of ink. Another printhead component is the inkjet cartridge or inkjet tank. Depending on the manufacturer and model of the printer, ink cartridges come in various combinations, such as separate black and color cartridges, color and black in a single cartridge or even a cartridge for each ink color. The cartridges of some inkjet printers include the print head itself. The printhead along with the inkjet cartridge/s are moved back and forth across the paper by device called a stepper motor using a special belt. Some printers have an additional stepper motor to park the print head assembly when the printer is not in use which means that the print head assembly is restricted from accidentally moving. The print head assembly uses a stabilizer bar to ensure that movement is precise and controlled.
One of the paper feed assembly components is the paper tray or/and paper feeder. Most inkjet printers have a tray that the paper is loaded into. The feeder typically snaps open at an angle on the back of the printer, allowing the paper to be placed in it. Feeders generally do not hold as much paper as a traditional paper tray. A set of rollers pull the paper in from the tray or feeder and advance the paper when the print head assembly is ready for another pass after which another step motor powers the rollers to move the paper in the exact increment needed to ensure a continuous image is printed.
While earlier printers often had an external transformer, most printers sold today use a standard power supply that is incorporated into the printer itself.
A small but sophisticated amount of circuitry is built into the printer to control all the mechanical aspects of operation, as well as decode the information sent to the printer from the computer. It is connected to the computer by a cable through the interface port. The interface port can be either parallel port, USB port or SCSI port. The parallel port is still used by many printers, but most newer printers use the USB port. A few printers connect using a serial port or small computer system interface (SCSI) port.
Different types of inkjet printers exist based on the method they use to deliver the droplets of ink. There are three main inkjet technologies currently used by printer manufacturers. The thermal bubble technology used by manufacturers such as Canon and Hewlett Packard is commonly referred to as bubble jet. In a thermal inkjet printer, tiny resistors create heat, and this heat vaporizes ink to create a bubble. As the bubble expands, some of the ink is pushed out of a nozzle onto the paper. When the bubble collapses, a vacuum is created. This pulls more ink into the print head from the cartridge. A typical bubble jet print head has 300 or 600 tiny nozzles, and all of them can fire a droplet simultaneously. Thermal inkjet technology is used almost exclusively in the consumer inkjet printer market. The ink used is usually water-based, pigment-based or dye-based but the print head is produced usually at less cost than other ink jet technologies.
Contrary to the bubble jet technology, the piezoelectric technology, patented by Epson, uses piezo crystals. A crystal is located at the back of the ink reservoir of each nozzle. The crystal receives a tiny electric charge that causes it to vibrate. When the crystal vibrates inward, it forces a tiny amount of ink out of the nozzle. When it vibrates out, it pulls some more ink into the reservoir to replace the ink sprayed out.
The continuous inkjet method is used commercially for marking and coding of products and packages. The first patent on the idea is from 1867, by William Thomson. The first commercial model was introduced in 1951 by Siemens. In continuous inkjet technology, a high-pressure pump directs liquid ink from a reservoir through a microscopic nozzle, creating a continuous stream of ink droplets. A piezoelectric crystal causes the stream of liquid to break into droplets at regular intervals. The ink droplets are subjected to an electrostatic field created by a charging electrode as they form. The field is varied according to the degree of drop deflection desired. This results in a controlled, variable electrostatic charge on each droplet. Charged droplets are separated by one or more uncharged “guard droplets” to minimize electrostatic repulsion between neighboring droplets. The charged droplets are then directed (deflected) to the receptor material to be printed by electrostatic deflection plates, or are allowed to continue on undeflected to a collection gutter for reuse. Continuous inkjet is one of the oldest inkjet technologies in use and is fairly mature. One of its advantages is the very high velocity (~50 m/s) of the ink droplets, which allows the ink drops to be thrown a long distance to the target. Another advantage is freedom from nozzle clogging as the jet is always in use
When printing is started, the software application sends the data to be printed to the printer driver which translates the data into a format that the printer can understand and checks to see that the printer is online and available to print. The data is sent by the driver from the computer to the printer via the connection interface. The printer receives the data from the computer. It stores a certain amount of data in a buffer. The buffer can range from 512 KB random access memory (RAM) to 16 MB RAM, depending on the printer model. Buffers are useful because they allow the computer to finish with the printing process quickly, instead of having to wait for the actual page to print. If the inkjet printer has been idle for a period of time, it will normally go through a short cleaning cycle to make sure that the print heads are clean. Once the cleaning cycle is complete, the inkjet printer is ready to begin printing. The control circuitry activates the paper feed stepper motor. This engages the rollers, which feed a sheet of paper from the paper tray / feeder into the printer. A small trigger mechanism in the tray / feeder is depressed when there is paper in the tray or feeder. If the trigger is not depressed, the inkjet printer lights up the "Out of Paper" LED and sends an alert to the computer. Once the paper is fed into the inkjet printer and positioned at the start of the page, the print head stepper motor uses the belt to move the print head assembly across the page. The motor pauses for the merest fraction of a second each time that the print head sprays dots of ink on the page and then moves a tiny bit before stopping again. This stepping happens so fast that it seems like a continuous motion. Multiple dots are made at each stop. It sprays the CMYK (cyan / magenta / yellow / black) colors in precise amounts to make any other color imaginable. At the end of each complete pass, the paper feed stepper motor advances the paper a fraction of an inch. Depending on the inkjet printer model, the print head is reset to the beginning side of the page, or, in most cases, simply reverses direction and begins to move back across the page as it prints. This process continues until the page is printed. The time it takes to print a page can vary widely from printer to printer. It will also vary based on the complexity of the page and size of any images on the page. Once the printing is complete, the print heads are parked. The paper feed stepper motor spins the rollers to finish pushing the completed page into the output tray. Most inkjet printers today use inkjet inks that are very fast-drying, so that you can immediately pick up the sheet without smudging it.
Compared to earlier consumer-oriented printers, inkjet printers have a number of advantages. They are quieter in operation than impact dot matrix printers or daisywheel printers. They can print finer, smoother details through higher printhead resolution, and many inkjet printers with photorealistic-quality color printing are widely available. In comparison to more expensive technologies like thermal wax, dye sublimations, and laser printers, the inkjet printers have the advantage of practically no warm-up time and lower cost per page (except when compared to laser printers).
The disadvantages of the inkjet printers include flimsy print heads (prone to clogging) and expensive inkjet cartridges. This typically leads value-minded consumers to consider laser printers for medium-to-high volume printer applications. Other disadvantages include ink bleeding, where ink is carried sideways away from the desired location by the capillary effect; the result is a muddy appearance on some types of paper. Most inkjet printer manufacturers also sell special clay-treated paper designed to reduce bleeding. Because the ink used in most inkjet cartridges and ink tanks is water-soluble, care must be taken with inkjet-printed documents to avoid even the smallest drop of water, which can cause severe "blurring" or "running."
Besides the well known small inkjet printers for home and office, there is a market for professional inkjet printers; some being for page-width format printing, and most being for wide format printing. "Page-width format" means that the print width ranges from about 8.5" to 37". "Wide format" means that these are inkjet printers ranging in print width from 24" up to 15'. The application of the page-width inkjet printers is for printing high-volume business communications that have a lesser need for flashy layout and color. Particularly with the addition of variable data technologies, the page-width inkjet printers are important in billing, tagging, and individualized catalogs and newspapers. The application of most of the wide format inkjet printers is for printing advertising graphics; a minor application is printing of designs by architects or engineers.
Saturday, November 15, 2008
Electro Magnetic Fields and the Nature Rythms of the Earth
The electromagnetic fields are present everywhere. They can be caused by natural means or by artificial methods. The natural methods are those produced by the sun, earth, moon and finally our body. The artificial fields are produced by all electrical appliances and cell phones. Radio communication also tends to increase the electromagnetic field. Apparently mobile phone conforms to both of these. They are a major producer of electromagnetic field and are present very close to humans.
The body has a natural rhythm tuned to that of earth's electromagnetic field. This can be felt during power failures. The body tends to relax once the source of electricity, around it, is cut off. There is a sense of calmness and serenity in the absence of an electrical appliance. This directly points to the fact that the body is not at ease to the presence of the electrical gadgets. However, life is impossible without electrical appliances. They must be avoided as much as possible in order to protect the health of the body. Similarly, frequent headaches are common to people who are engaged with their cell phones most of the time.
The sun is a constant source of electromagnetic waves. The moon and the space surrounding the earth tend to modify the electromagnetic field of the earth. This causes the field of the earth to be at a constant change throughout the year. The surface and the ionosphere cause the electromagnetic field to bounce from one to another thereby causing pulse of about 0.1 to thirty cycles per second.
The average pulse is that of ten cycles per second and it is referred to as the Rhythm of the Earth. The body has learned to adapt to this invisible electromagnetic field. A very common example is that of female menstruation cycle. It has been found that a particular pineal gland responds in accordance to that of earth's electromagnetic field. It controls the moods and sleeping habits of the body. The immunity of the body depends on this gland as well. The brain waves are those produced by the brain for communicating with other organs through the nervous system.
Coincidentally, the relaxed brain generates around 10 cycles per second similar to that of our earth. The waves are reduced during sleep and are escalated when under pressure or excitement. The gland secretes a fluid called melatonin which increases the immunity of the body. Any change in this melatonin would cause severe damage to the body in the form of cancers and tumors.
The body is suited to an electromagnetic field of about 30 cycles per second. However, the external disturbance of over 50 cycles would cause discomfort to both the brain and the body. This is capable of causing several diseases over the period. The tests of these electromagnetic fields over lab animals have proved that they are harmful for the brain and blood.
They also affect the normal functioning of the hormones and also cause cancer, tumor and miscarriages. Several researches and tests have concluded that children living near huge source of electromagnetic fields are prone to disease like leukemia and nerve or lymph cancer. Similar cases have been reported in the case of women who have had miscarriages, birth defects and cancers.
The mobile phones produce about a million cycles per second. They are a source of death for sure. The brain damage reported because of cell phones is increasing every day. People accustomed to cell phone suffer from mood variations and stress. The phones directly affect the pineal glands because of the proximity to the brain.
Mobile phones cannot be disposed off entirely because of these harmful effects. However, steps can be taken to prevent these diseases from becoming a regular pattern. The usage of mobile phones should be decreased at any cost. Researches should be made to make an alternative source of communication which would not be this dangerous
Tuesday, November 4, 2008
Injection Molding-How Plastic is Molded
Plastic has, quite literally, become the cornerstone of our society. We make so many things from plastic that it is hard to imagine what our lives would be like if it was never invented. With so many of our everyday products being made of plastic, it is easy to understand why plastic injection molding is such a huge industry.
Approximately 30% of all plastic products are produced using an injection molding process. Of this 30%, a large amount of these products are produced by using custom injection molding technology. Six steps are involved in the injection molding process, after the prototype has been made and approved.
The first step to the injection molding process is the clamping of the mold. This clamping unit is one of three standard parts of the injection machine. They are the mold, the clamping unit and the injection unit. The clamp is what actually holds the mold while the melted plastic is being injected, the mold is held under pressure while the injected plastic is cooling.
Next is the actual injection of the melted plastic. The plastic usually begins this process as pellets that are put into a large hopper. The pellets are then fed to a cylinder; here they are heated until they become molten plastic that is easily forced into the mold. The plastic stays in the mold, where it is being clamped under pressure until it cools.
The next couple of steps consist of the dwelling phase, which is basically making sure that all of the cavities of the mold are filled with the melted plastic. After the dwelling phase, the cooling process begins and continues until the plastic becomes solid inside the form. Finally, the mold is opened and the newly formed plastic part is ejected from its mold. The part is cleaned of any extra plastic from the mold.
As with any process, there are advantages and disadvantages associated with plastic injection molding. The advantages outweigh the disadvantages for most companies; they include being able to keep up high levels of production, being able to replicate a high tolerance level in the products being produced, and lower costs for labor as the bulk of the work is done by machine. Plastic injection molding also has the added benefit of lower scrap costs because the mold is so precisely made.
However, the disadvantages can be a deal breaker for smaller companies that would like to utilize plastic injection molding as a way to produce parts. These disadvantages are, that they equipment needed is expensive, therefore, increasing operating costs.
Thankfully, for these smaller companies, there are businesses that specialize in custom plastic injection molding. They will make a mock up mold to the exact specifications, run it through the complete process and present the completed piece along with an estimate to complete the job to the customer.
Wednesday, October 29, 2008
Solar Cells
A solar cell is a device which changes sunlight into electricity. A more technical term for a solar cell is a photovoltaic cell.
The term "photo" derives from the Greek word for "light," and the term "voltaic" comes from the word "volt" which means "electrical force." A "cell" is a small receptacle or container containing electrodes which generate power.
Thus, a photovoltaic cell is a container that creates electric force, through light.
Whereas a solar cell can generate electricity from any light source, its intended use is the collection of solar energy from the sun.
How a Solar Cell Works
The solar cell works as follows:
Photons (which are particles of light in sun rays) hit the surface of the solar cell and are absorbed a semiconductor, such as silicon.
These photons (bits of sunlight) knock electrons loose from the atoms inside the semiconductor. The photons then push the electrons along, leaving a "gap" in the atom. Another electron is then pulled from an adjacent atom to fill the gap. And so an electrical flow is generated.
The simplicity of this is that one atom has an extra electron, and the other atom is missing one. This is referred to as a "difference in potential." Nature, wanting to remain balanced, tries to even things out by pulling another electron from the neighboring atom.
A solar panel is comprised of a group of solar cells which are linked together to produce the desired amount of electrical energy.
A group of solar cells linked together can also be referred to as a "module." Thus the terms "solar panel," and "solar module," are synonymous to each other, and essentially mean the exact same thing. "Solar panel" is the more common term, and "solar module" is the technical term.
One can use solar panels individually or one can link several together in order to generate more electricity. When a group of solar panels are linked together, it is called a "solar array". The more solar panels are included in a solar array, the more power they produce.
Solar Power is a clean and virtually unlimited source of energy. I say "virtually unlimited" because the sun itself won't last forever. But we won't have to worry about that for the next few billion years.
Since solar power is a clean energy source which has been around for decades, one might wonder why its not used more. The answer to this lies partially in the cost of producing solar panels, as well as in the efficiency of the solar panels.
We are currently in the second generation of solar panel technology and verging on the third. A lot has changed since the first generation. Solar panels a are becoming a viable source of clean energy.
The solar cells of earlier times were relatively large and bulky compared to our current models. In view of the amount of energy and material required to produce them, and the amount of energy they actually produced, it was more costly to use solar energy than to use fossil fuels. The only exception was in places where little or no fossil fuels were available, such as in space.
With the second-generation solar cells, we attempted to tackle this exact problem. We attempted improve manufacturing techniques so as to reduce the costs, materials and energy needed for the production of solar cells.
Recently, major advances have been made in the production of solar cells, which have reduced production costs.
One contribution in this area was the development of techniques to coat glass or ceramic materials with very thin layers of semi-conductive substances. This made it possible to produce solar panels using only a fraction of the semi-conductive material that was required earlier. The production of solar panels using this second-generation technology is referred to as "Thin Film Technology."
Third-generation solar energy technologies are currently being researched and developed. The objective is to improve the power of solar cells even further (while keeping production costs to a minimum) in which case thirty to sixty percent of the sunlight hitting the panels will be converted into electricity. (Currently, solar panels convert only about twenty percent.)
But regardless of third generation solar technology, the second-generation solar cell is efficient enough to make solar technology viable - and a host of new solar-powered products have hit the consumer market.
Solar-powered calculators have been in use for a while now, we've all seen them. We have even seen a few other novelty devices. But only in the last few years have solar devices come into serious and practical use.
The last two years in particular have seen a virtual explosion of solar devices hitting the market. Solar flashlights (I've often wandered what use they were), solar-powered radios, and, recently, solar battery chargers.
One can also now find a wide range of portable solar chargers and panels, which are lightweight and easy to transport, yet capable of providing a decent amount of power in even the most remote locations. Solar chargers are becoming a standard part of wilderness survival kits and emergency preparedness kits.
All of this is a result of the developments in solar cell technology, and the coming of the Solar Age.
The term "photo" derives from the Greek word for "light," and the term "voltaic" comes from the word "volt" which means "electrical force." A "cell" is a small receptacle or container containing electrodes which generate power.
Thus, a photovoltaic cell is a container that creates electric force, through light.
Whereas a solar cell can generate electricity from any light source, its intended use is the collection of solar energy from the sun.
How a Solar Cell Works
The solar cell works as follows:
Photons (which are particles of light in sun rays) hit the surface of the solar cell and are absorbed a semiconductor, such as silicon.
These photons (bits of sunlight) knock electrons loose from the atoms inside the semiconductor. The photons then push the electrons along, leaving a "gap" in the atom. Another electron is then pulled from an adjacent atom to fill the gap. And so an electrical flow is generated.
The simplicity of this is that one atom has an extra electron, and the other atom is missing one. This is referred to as a "difference in potential." Nature, wanting to remain balanced, tries to even things out by pulling another electron from the neighboring atom.
A solar panel is comprised of a group of solar cells which are linked together to produce the desired amount of electrical energy.
A group of solar cells linked together can also be referred to as a "module." Thus the terms "solar panel," and "solar module," are synonymous to each other, and essentially mean the exact same thing. "Solar panel" is the more common term, and "solar module" is the technical term.
One can use solar panels individually or one can link several together in order to generate more electricity. When a group of solar panels are linked together, it is called a "solar array". The more solar panels are included in a solar array, the more power they produce.
Solar Power is a clean and virtually unlimited source of energy. I say "virtually unlimited" because the sun itself won't last forever. But we won't have to worry about that for the next few billion years.
Since solar power is a clean energy source which has been around for decades, one might wonder why its not used more. The answer to this lies partially in the cost of producing solar panels, as well as in the efficiency of the solar panels.
We are currently in the second generation of solar panel technology and verging on the third. A lot has changed since the first generation. Solar panels a are becoming a viable source of clean energy.
The solar cells of earlier times were relatively large and bulky compared to our current models. In view of the amount of energy and material required to produce them, and the amount of energy they actually produced, it was more costly to use solar energy than to use fossil fuels. The only exception was in places where little or no fossil fuels were available, such as in space.
With the second-generation solar cells, we attempted to tackle this exact problem. We attempted improve manufacturing techniques so as to reduce the costs, materials and energy needed for the production of solar cells.
Recently, major advances have been made in the production of solar cells, which have reduced production costs.
One contribution in this area was the development of techniques to coat glass or ceramic materials with very thin layers of semi-conductive substances. This made it possible to produce solar panels using only a fraction of the semi-conductive material that was required earlier. The production of solar panels using this second-generation technology is referred to as "Thin Film Technology."
Third-generation solar energy technologies are currently being researched and developed. The objective is to improve the power of solar cells even further (while keeping production costs to a minimum) in which case thirty to sixty percent of the sunlight hitting the panels will be converted into electricity. (Currently, solar panels convert only about twenty percent.)
But regardless of third generation solar technology, the second-generation solar cell is efficient enough to make solar technology viable - and a host of new solar-powered products have hit the consumer market.
Solar-powered calculators have been in use for a while now, we've all seen them. We have even seen a few other novelty devices. But only in the last few years have solar devices come into serious and practical use.
The last two years in particular have seen a virtual explosion of solar devices hitting the market. Solar flashlights (I've often wandered what use they were), solar-powered radios, and, recently, solar battery chargers.
One can also now find a wide range of portable solar chargers and panels, which are lightweight and easy to transport, yet capable of providing a decent amount of power in even the most remote locations. Solar chargers are becoming a standard part of wilderness survival kits and emergency preparedness kits.
All of this is a result of the developments in solar cell technology, and the coming of the Solar Age.
What is Inside Wimax Technology (802.16)
WiMAX technology is identified as Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access; it is formed in June 2001 to encourage conformance and interoperability of the WiMAX (IEEE 802.16) standard, officially known as Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN). WiMAX technology intended to offer wireless data in a related fashion as compare to WiFi but on a outsized level and speed, therefore building national wireless networks with ease.
The driving forces behind WiMAX technology are link-to-multilink microwave networks from organizations for instance Alcatel and Siemens stay alive for years. Alternatively WiMAX offers a consistent technology according to its standard. WiMAX technology open loom could let product manufacturers make revenues of scale via producing number of WiMAX products & components to single IEEE 802.16 standard, this also allow component manufacturers buy low-cost, standards compliant components from rival component providers. This would defiantly help existing wireless service providers.
In addition, service providers lacking a mobile network can start a WiMAX technology network at comparatively stumpy price. WiMAX technology would also allow interoperability among different systems. WiMAX technology will offer high data speed network connections and in this manner serve as a backhaul for WiFi LAN (WLAN) hot spots, where people on the move can access carriers' WiFi services on mobile technology basis. WiMAX technology possibly will offer a much cheaper, easier to build network infrastructure other than the physical medium of WiFi backhauls that cable, T1 or DSL systems presently offer. These issues, together with user’s requirements for broadband facilities, will offer the grounds to markets to grow with WiMAX and wireless-broadband. However, the WiMAX technology faces some solid challenges ahead of it can become commonly accepted by users.
Because WiMAX is based on IEEE 802.16 Standard and HiperMAN, the IEEE and ETSI have each become accustomed it’s standard to take in many of the other's essential characteristics. IEEE 802.16 standard partitioned its MAC (Medium Access Control) layer into sub-layers that hold some different transport equipments and technologies, together with Ethernet, IPv4, IPv6 and other asynchronous transfer mode. This allows traders to use WiMAX technology it doesn’t matter about what technology they support for transmission. WiMAX technology has a wide communication range up to 50 kilometres because principles allows WiMAX network to transfer data at higher rates and because of this move towards use of directional antennas that generates persistent radio signals. WiMAX base station provide service to only 500 users at a time not more than that just because to they are sharing bandwidth and this factor may result in lower date rates among. Technically every single station will possibly provide communication an area inside a 10 miles radius. On the other hand WiFi has a range of only a few hundred feet while other third generation mobile networks have the range of few thousand feet.
As compare to other wireless standards their address broadcastings over particular frequency range, WiMAX network allocates data communication over several broad signal frequency ranges. The capacity to work in several ranges makes the most of the technology's ability to communicate above the frequencies that will evade interference with other wireless network applications. WiMAX system’s communication date rate and range differ a lot depending on implementation usage of frequency bands. These advantages of flexibility allow providers to employ different frequencies that depend on the speed and range needed for a particular data communication. The WiMAX technology attains higher data transmission rates in part by OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing). OFDM amplifies data capacity and bandwidth via dividing broad capacity channels to many narrowband channels; every channel uses different frequencies that can transmit different pieces of a message at the same time.
The spaces between channels are extremely close mutually other than avoiding intervention as nearby channels are orthogonal to each other and therefore no overlapping between them. The primary IEEE 802.16 standard uses the 10 to 66 GHz frequency range. On those higher frequencies WiMAX network needed a straight line of sight among senders & receivers. This factor shrinks the multi path distortion that arises when transmitting signals not follow the line of sight echoed of outsized items and finish off out of organization, in this manner jumbling the inbound communication and reducing bandwidth.
Dropping multi path distortion could therefore enhance the bandwidth. In theory WiMAX network can offer single channel data rates up to 75 Mbits/s equally on the downlink and uplink. Service providers can use several 802.16 channels for single broadcast to offer bandwidths of up to 350 Mb per second.
The accepted IEEE 802.11b WiFi WLAN technology data rate are limited to 11Mbps, on the other hand newer 802.11a and 802.11g provide upto 54Mbps in favourable conditions but practically all of the them transmit at lesser speed. Third generation mobile network technologies will support around 115 Kbps.
As far as security is concerned in WiMAX technology it uses PKI (Public Key Infrastructure) authentication, which transmit via digital certificates by identifying parties over trusted authorities. The IEEE 802.16 system encrypts data by using 56 bit DES (Data Encryption Standard) keys. In the meantime WiMAX network is extremely scalable as it is simple to include broadcast channels to offer extra bandwidth as required.
The expenditure of setting up wireless technology is significantly increases when the wireless services are supplied at higher frequencies as the line of sight constraints required the setting up of further antennas to cover up the equivalent geographical area. The available frequencies for new wireless standards such as IEEE 802.16 are normally higher as some of the other wireless technologies are more sought-after to lower ranges that have been approved for other use.
During the development of WiMAX technology, the WiMAX Forum has strongly supported and encourage the WiMAX technology, which involves a cluster of commercial leaders such as AT&T, Cisco, Samsung, Intel, and some others giants. The WiMAX forum group's workforce is comprised of many working groups that highly focused on regulatory, marketing, technological characteristics. WiMAX product certification program was extended by the certification working group which intends to certify interoperability among WiMAX products from manufacturers internationally.
The driving forces behind WiMAX technology are link-to-multilink microwave networks from organizations for instance Alcatel and Siemens stay alive for years. Alternatively WiMAX offers a consistent technology according to its standard. WiMAX technology open loom could let product manufacturers make revenues of scale via producing number of WiMAX products & components to single IEEE 802.16 standard, this also allow component manufacturers buy low-cost, standards compliant components from rival component providers. This would defiantly help existing wireless service providers.
In addition, service providers lacking a mobile network can start a WiMAX technology network at comparatively stumpy price. WiMAX technology would also allow interoperability among different systems. WiMAX technology will offer high data speed network connections and in this manner serve as a backhaul for WiFi LAN (WLAN) hot spots, where people on the move can access carriers' WiFi services on mobile technology basis. WiMAX technology possibly will offer a much cheaper, easier to build network infrastructure other than the physical medium of WiFi backhauls that cable, T1 or DSL systems presently offer. These issues, together with user’s requirements for broadband facilities, will offer the grounds to markets to grow with WiMAX and wireless-broadband. However, the WiMAX technology faces some solid challenges ahead of it can become commonly accepted by users.
Because WiMAX is based on IEEE 802.16 Standard and HiperMAN, the IEEE and ETSI have each become accustomed it’s standard to take in many of the other's essential characteristics. IEEE 802.16 standard partitioned its MAC (Medium Access Control) layer into sub-layers that hold some different transport equipments and technologies, together with Ethernet, IPv4, IPv6 and other asynchronous transfer mode. This allows traders to use WiMAX technology it doesn’t matter about what technology they support for transmission. WiMAX technology has a wide communication range up to 50 kilometres because principles allows WiMAX network to transfer data at higher rates and because of this move towards use of directional antennas that generates persistent radio signals. WiMAX base station provide service to only 500 users at a time not more than that just because to they are sharing bandwidth and this factor may result in lower date rates among. Technically every single station will possibly provide communication an area inside a 10 miles radius. On the other hand WiFi has a range of only a few hundred feet while other third generation mobile networks have the range of few thousand feet.
As compare to other wireless standards their address broadcastings over particular frequency range, WiMAX network allocates data communication over several broad signal frequency ranges. The capacity to work in several ranges makes the most of the technology's ability to communicate above the frequencies that will evade interference with other wireless network applications. WiMAX system’s communication date rate and range differ a lot depending on implementation usage of frequency bands. These advantages of flexibility allow providers to employ different frequencies that depend on the speed and range needed for a particular data communication. The WiMAX technology attains higher data transmission rates in part by OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing). OFDM amplifies data capacity and bandwidth via dividing broad capacity channels to many narrowband channels; every channel uses different frequencies that can transmit different pieces of a message at the same time.
The spaces between channels are extremely close mutually other than avoiding intervention as nearby channels are orthogonal to each other and therefore no overlapping between them. The primary IEEE 802.16 standard uses the 10 to 66 GHz frequency range. On those higher frequencies WiMAX network needed a straight line of sight among senders & receivers. This factor shrinks the multi path distortion that arises when transmitting signals not follow the line of sight echoed of outsized items and finish off out of organization, in this manner jumbling the inbound communication and reducing bandwidth.
Dropping multi path distortion could therefore enhance the bandwidth. In theory WiMAX network can offer single channel data rates up to 75 Mbits/s equally on the downlink and uplink. Service providers can use several 802.16 channels for single broadcast to offer bandwidths of up to 350 Mb per second.
The accepted IEEE 802.11b WiFi WLAN technology data rate are limited to 11Mbps, on the other hand newer 802.11a and 802.11g provide upto 54Mbps in favourable conditions but practically all of the them transmit at lesser speed. Third generation mobile network technologies will support around 115 Kbps.
As far as security is concerned in WiMAX technology it uses PKI (Public Key Infrastructure) authentication, which transmit via digital certificates by identifying parties over trusted authorities. The IEEE 802.16 system encrypts data by using 56 bit DES (Data Encryption Standard) keys. In the meantime WiMAX network is extremely scalable as it is simple to include broadcast channels to offer extra bandwidth as required.
The expenditure of setting up wireless technology is significantly increases when the wireless services are supplied at higher frequencies as the line of sight constraints required the setting up of further antennas to cover up the equivalent geographical area. The available frequencies for new wireless standards such as IEEE 802.16 are normally higher as some of the other wireless technologies are more sought-after to lower ranges that have been approved for other use.
During the development of WiMAX technology, the WiMAX Forum has strongly supported and encourage the WiMAX technology, which involves a cluster of commercial leaders such as AT&T, Cisco, Samsung, Intel, and some others giants. The WiMAX forum group's workforce is comprised of many working groups that highly focused on regulatory, marketing, technological characteristics. WiMAX product certification program was extended by the certification working group which intends to certify interoperability among WiMAX products from manufacturers internationally.
Monday, October 27, 2008
5 Important Functions of Wimax
Like WiFi system, WiMax can work on the similar way. You can access WiMax internet connection at any distance.
The speed of the WiMax is higher and there are more and more customers are enjoying using the WiMax system because of netter connectivity.
With the better connectivity, the WiMax can provide better connectivity in the interior region in USA because of lack of phone and cable network.
1. The WiMax system provides facilities of internet access through WiMax tower and WiMax receiver. The WiMax Tower is able to cover the larger area in the range of 8 thousand square kilometer. It is like cell phone tower.
2. WiMax receiver and antenna work with same direction as WiFi network. It has inbuilt facilities to access the network. The PCMCIA card is build-in with laptop to receive and deliver the signals.
3. TheWiMax tower station provides high bandwidth facilities like the T3 lines. You can also connect it with wired connection. You can also connect to WiMax tower with microwave link. Connection with one tower to another is the major advantage to get the benefits to connect in the rural area.
4. WiMax provides connection in two kinds of wireless service. There are lines of sight and non-line of sight is available in the WiMax services. In the line-of sight services there is a fixed antenna used at home top or office top to connect the network. The line-of-sight is more static and connectivity is good. You can get the faster speed with less error.
5. With non-line-of-sight network work on the same line with WiFi network. In this case you need small antenna in the computer to get the connection remotely. WiMax provides the services in the range of 2 to 11 GHz.
The speed of the WiMax is higher and there are more and more customers are enjoying using the WiMax system because of netter connectivity.
With the better connectivity, the WiMax can provide better connectivity in the interior region in USA because of lack of phone and cable network.
1. The WiMax system provides facilities of internet access through WiMax tower and WiMax receiver. The WiMax Tower is able to cover the larger area in the range of 8 thousand square kilometer. It is like cell phone tower.
2. WiMax receiver and antenna work with same direction as WiFi network. It has inbuilt facilities to access the network. The PCMCIA card is build-in with laptop to receive and deliver the signals.
3. TheWiMax tower station provides high bandwidth facilities like the T3 lines. You can also connect it with wired connection. You can also connect to WiMax tower with microwave link. Connection with one tower to another is the major advantage to get the benefits to connect in the rural area.
4. WiMax provides connection in two kinds of wireless service. There are lines of sight and non-line of sight is available in the WiMax services. In the line-of sight services there is a fixed antenna used at home top or office top to connect the network. The line-of-sight is more static and connectivity is good. You can get the faster speed with less error.
5. With non-line-of-sight network work on the same line with WiFi network. In this case you need small antenna in the computer to get the connection remotely. WiMax provides the services in the range of 2 to 11 GHz.
What Can Wimax Technology Offer?
WiMAX technology offers wireless data in a related form as compare to WiFi but its level and speed allow to build hybrid and wireless networks, of any size, anywhere. It is formed to encourage conformance and interoperability of Wireless Metropolitan Area Network. WiMAX offers a consistent technology according to its standard. WiMAX technology open could let product manufacturers make revenues of scale via producing number of WiMAX products & components to single IEEE 802.16 standard, this also allow component manufacturers buy low-cost, standards compliant components from rival component providers. This would definitely help existing wireless service providers.
WiMAX technology will offer high data speed network connections and in this manner serve as a backhaul for WiFi LAN (WLAN) hot spots, where people on the move can access carriers' WiFi services on mobile technology basis, because this technology allows interoperability among different systems. And service providers lacking a mobile network can use a WiMAX technology network at comparatively low price. WiMAX technology possibly will offer a much cheaper, easier to build network infrastructure other than the physical medium of WiFi backhauls that cable, T1 or DSL systems presently offer.
Because WiMAX is based on IEEE 802.16 Standard and HiperMAN, the IEEE and ETSI have each become accustomed it's standard to take in many of the other's essential characteristics. IEEE 802.16 standard partitioned its MAC (Medium Access Control) layer into sub-layers that hold some different transport equipments and technologies, together with Ethernet, IPv4, IPv6 and other asynchronous transfer mode. This allows traders to use WiMAX technology and no matter what technology they support for transmission. WiMAX technology has a wide communication range up to 50 kilometers because principles allows WiMAX network to transfer data at higher rates and because of this move towards use of directional antennas that generates persistent radio signals. WiMAX base station provide service to only 500 users at a time not more than that just because to they are sharing bandwidthand this factor may cause lower date rates among. Technically every single station will possibly provide communication an area inside a 10 miles radius. To compare WiFi with WiMAX technology the last has a range of few thousand feet. while WiFi has a range of only a few hundred feet.
Moreover WiMAX network broadcasts data communication over several broad signal frequency ranges. And this exceptional capacity to work in several ranges allows to communicate above the frequencies that will evade interference with other wireless network applications. Also the flexibility of this system's communication allows providers to employ different frequencies that depend on the speed and range needed for a particular data communication. Amplifying data capacity and bandwidth via dividing broad capacity channels to many narrowband channels, the WiMAX technology attains higher data transmission rates in part by OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing).Every channel uses different frequencies that can transmit different pieces of a message at the same time.
One of the important advantages of data transmission is that the channels do not overlap, in spite of the fact that the spaces between channels are extremely close. The primary IEEE 802.16 standard uses the 10 to 66 GHz frequency range And it is very suitable because this frequency range shrinks the multi path distortion that arises when transmitting signals that do not follow the line of sight echoed items and finish off out of sink, thus jumbling the inbound communication and reducing bandwidth.
In theory WiMAX network can offer single channel data rates up to 75 Mbits/s equally on the downlink and uplink. Service providers can use several 802.16 channels for single broadcast to offer bandwidths of up to 350 Mb per second.
Third generation mobile network technologies will support around 115 Kbps. The accepted IEEE 802.11b WiFi WLAN technology data rate are limited to 11Mbps, on the other hand newer 802.11a and 802.11g provide up to 54Mbps in favorable conditions but practically all of the them transmit at lesser speed.
In the meantime WiMAX network is extremely scalable as it is simple to include broadcast channels to offer extra bandwidth as required. And as far as security is concerned in WiMAX technology it uses PKI (Public Key Infrastructure) authentication, which transmit via digital certificates by identifying parties over trusted authorities. The IEEE 802.16 system encrypts data by using 56 bit DES (Data Encryption Standard) keys.
The wireless services are supplied at higher frequencies as the line of sight constraints required the setting up of many antennas to cover up the equivalent area and this increases to a great extent the expenditure of setting up wireless technology. The available frequencies for new wireless standards such as IEEE 802.16 are higher as some of the other wireless technologies are more sought-after to diminish ranges that have been approved for other use.
The WiMAX technology is always supported by the WiMAX Forum which comprises a group of commercial leaders such as AT&T, Cisco, Samsung, Intel, and some other giants. This forum involves many working groups that highly focused on regulatory, marketing, technological characteristics. Moreover the certification working group intends to certify interoperability among WiMAX products from manufacturers internationally
WiMAX technology will offer high data speed network connections and in this manner serve as a backhaul for WiFi LAN (WLAN) hot spots, where people on the move can access carriers' WiFi services on mobile technology basis, because this technology allows interoperability among different systems. And service providers lacking a mobile network can use a WiMAX technology network at comparatively low price. WiMAX technology possibly will offer a much cheaper, easier to build network infrastructure other than the physical medium of WiFi backhauls that cable, T1 or DSL systems presently offer.
Because WiMAX is based on IEEE 802.16 Standard and HiperMAN, the IEEE and ETSI have each become accustomed it's standard to take in many of the other's essential characteristics. IEEE 802.16 standard partitioned its MAC (Medium Access Control) layer into sub-layers that hold some different transport equipments and technologies, together with Ethernet, IPv4, IPv6 and other asynchronous transfer mode. This allows traders to use WiMAX technology and no matter what technology they support for transmission. WiMAX technology has a wide communication range up to 50 kilometers because principles allows WiMAX network to transfer data at higher rates and because of this move towards use of directional antennas that generates persistent radio signals. WiMAX base station provide service to only 500 users at a time not more than that just because to they are sharing bandwidthand this factor may cause lower date rates among. Technically every single station will possibly provide communication an area inside a 10 miles radius. To compare WiFi with WiMAX technology the last has a range of few thousand feet. while WiFi has a range of only a few hundred feet.
Moreover WiMAX network broadcasts data communication over several broad signal frequency ranges. And this exceptional capacity to work in several ranges allows to communicate above the frequencies that will evade interference with other wireless network applications. Also the flexibility of this system's communication allows providers to employ different frequencies that depend on the speed and range needed for a particular data communication. Amplifying data capacity and bandwidth via dividing broad capacity channels to many narrowband channels, the WiMAX technology attains higher data transmission rates in part by OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing).Every channel uses different frequencies that can transmit different pieces of a message at the same time.
One of the important advantages of data transmission is that the channels do not overlap, in spite of the fact that the spaces between channels are extremely close. The primary IEEE 802.16 standard uses the 10 to 66 GHz frequency range And it is very suitable because this frequency range shrinks the multi path distortion that arises when transmitting signals that do not follow the line of sight echoed items and finish off out of sink, thus jumbling the inbound communication and reducing bandwidth.
In theory WiMAX network can offer single channel data rates up to 75 Mbits/s equally on the downlink and uplink. Service providers can use several 802.16 channels for single broadcast to offer bandwidths of up to 350 Mb per second.
Third generation mobile network technologies will support around 115 Kbps. The accepted IEEE 802.11b WiFi WLAN technology data rate are limited to 11Mbps, on the other hand newer 802.11a and 802.11g provide up to 54Mbps in favorable conditions but practically all of the them transmit at lesser speed.
In the meantime WiMAX network is extremely scalable as it is simple to include broadcast channels to offer extra bandwidth as required. And as far as security is concerned in WiMAX technology it uses PKI (Public Key Infrastructure) authentication, which transmit via digital certificates by identifying parties over trusted authorities. The IEEE 802.16 system encrypts data by using 56 bit DES (Data Encryption Standard) keys.
The wireless services are supplied at higher frequencies as the line of sight constraints required the setting up of many antennas to cover up the equivalent area and this increases to a great extent the expenditure of setting up wireless technology. The available frequencies for new wireless standards such as IEEE 802.16 are higher as some of the other wireless technologies are more sought-after to diminish ranges that have been approved for other use.
The WiMAX technology is always supported by the WiMAX Forum which comprises a group of commercial leaders such as AT&T, Cisco, Samsung, Intel, and some other giants. This forum involves many working groups that highly focused on regulatory, marketing, technological characteristics. Moreover the certification working group intends to certify interoperability among WiMAX products from manufacturers internationally
WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access)
Description of WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access)
WiMAX is another name for IEEE 802.16, an international standard that allows for computers to be networked together and access the internet wirelessly. Although similar to Wi-Fi, WiMAX has a much broader range, and allows for faster data transfer speeds.
Because of the fact that a single WiMAX base station can cover an entire metropolitan area, it allows for true mobility rather than having to hop from hotspot to hotspot as is necessary with Wi-Fi connections
Wednesday, October 22, 2008
Electronics and Semiconductor Patents - an Evolution Scenario
In recent years, there has been an extensive boost in technological concepts related to electronics and electrical domain. Electronic engineering is a constantly changing and widening branch of technology. Electronics and semiconductor engineering is one of the largest and fastest growing industries. This growth has entailed a wide range of patent filing, all through. Electronics and semiconductors covers a wide range of applications we use daily, such as Television, Radio, computers, telecommunication etc, which make our life easier and enjoyable. It helps us see, hear and communicate over enormous distances and accomplish tasks faster. Electronics plays a major role in industries like oil, energy, agriculture and many other important sectors of economy. Electronics and semiconductor patents form a subclass of electrical patents. The electrical patenting class is broadly classified into many subclasses based on the area of nce. Some subclasses include Digital Electronics, Analog Electronics, Micro Electronics, Fuzzy Electronics, Application Specific Integrated Circuit Design, Semiconductors and Semiconductor devices, etc.
Patents are further classified based on the development of their active elements involving the design and testing of electronic circuits that use the electronic properties of components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes , microcontrollers, microprocessors and transistors to achieve a particular functionality. For example, 326 is the generic class for patents related to electronic digital logic devices, circuitry and sub combinations thereof, wherein non-arithmetical operations are performed upon discrete electrical signals representing a value normally described by numerical digits. It further has subclass 12 for redundant logic having a flip flop and subclass 37 for a multifunctional or programmable logic having a flip flop.
Integrated circuits and processing architectures are other categories protected by patents. Different aspects of these technologies such as architecture, applications or designs are protected by employing different intellectual property laws. As an invention, hardware architecture and their applications are protected as utility patents while Integrated circuit designs are protected as design patents. Hence, both design concepts and hardware are protected by patents. In discharging its patent-related duties, the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) examines patent applications and grants patents after establishing the patenting class and patentability of an invention. The claims of a patent serve as a guide in patent prosecution and infringement law suits.
There has been a steady growth in electrical, electronics and semiconductor patents being filed and granted by U.S. patent office since 1996. About 8, 16,349 electrical patents are being granted till December 31st 2004 and every year approximately 60,000 electrical patents are granted. U.S. Patent office has approximately granted 3, 70,000 semiconductor patents, 19,279 global positioning system patents, 75,109 electronics and communication patents.
Since its inception, the patent system has attempted to balance the tension between 2 competing objectives. On one hand, the law rewards technical innovation by granting exclusive rights to individuals for worthy inventions. On the other hand, it also seeks to increase the welfare of the society as a whole by providing it with the benefits of innovation. Electronics and semiconductor patents provide public with valuable information about how to use and implement new technology once it enters public domain.
One way to trace the development of electronics and semiconductor technology is to follow the development of its active elements, the switches and valves of electronics systems. A more recent trend in circuit design is to build custom integrated circuits that include as much circuitry as possible, often combining both analog and digital circuitry on a single substrate. This area is known as application specific integrated circuits (ASIC); the designers work with relatively small prefabricated circuits commonly called macro cells. In recent years there has been an increase in patent filing because in many industries and product development companies a division of innovative labor is emerging, resulting in the licensing of existing and prospective technologies. Hewlett Packard, Sanyo and Sony are some of the leading electronic companies in the world with a growing patent portfolio over the years.
Patents are further classified based on the development of their active elements involving the design and testing of electronic circuits that use the electronic properties of components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes , microcontrollers, microprocessors and transistors to achieve a particular functionality. For example, 326 is the generic class for patents related to electronic digital logic devices, circuitry and sub combinations thereof, wherein non-arithmetical operations are performed upon discrete electrical signals representing a value normally described by numerical digits. It further has subclass 12 for redundant logic having a flip flop and subclass 37 for a multifunctional or programmable logic having a flip flop.
Integrated circuits and processing architectures are other categories protected by patents. Different aspects of these technologies such as architecture, applications or designs are protected by employing different intellectual property laws. As an invention, hardware architecture and their applications are protected as utility patents while Integrated circuit designs are protected as design patents. Hence, both design concepts and hardware are protected by patents. In discharging its patent-related duties, the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) examines patent applications and grants patents after establishing the patenting class and patentability of an invention. The claims of a patent serve as a guide in patent prosecution and infringement law suits.
There has been a steady growth in electrical, electronics and semiconductor patents being filed and granted by U.S. patent office since 1996. About 8, 16,349 electrical patents are being granted till December 31st 2004 and every year approximately 60,000 electrical patents are granted. U.S. Patent office has approximately granted 3, 70,000 semiconductor patents, 19,279 global positioning system patents, 75,109 electronics and communication patents.
Since its inception, the patent system has attempted to balance the tension between 2 competing objectives. On one hand, the law rewards technical innovation by granting exclusive rights to individuals for worthy inventions. On the other hand, it also seeks to increase the welfare of the society as a whole by providing it with the benefits of innovation. Electronics and semiconductor patents provide public with valuable information about how to use and implement new technology once it enters public domain.
One way to trace the development of electronics and semiconductor technology is to follow the development of its active elements, the switches and valves of electronics systems. A more recent trend in circuit design is to build custom integrated circuits that include as much circuitry as possible, often combining both analog and digital circuitry on a single substrate. This area is known as application specific integrated circuits (ASIC); the designers work with relatively small prefabricated circuits commonly called macro cells. In recent years there has been an increase in patent filing because in many industries and product development companies a division of innovative labor is emerging, resulting in the licensing of existing and prospective technologies. Hewlett Packard, Sanyo and Sony are some of the leading electronic companies in the world with a growing patent portfolio over the years.
Electronics Engineering Technology Distance Learning - Become a Most in Demand Technologist
Electronics Engineering Technology distance learning courses are flourishing, making use of the low entry-level requirement of a 2-year Associate Degree to become an Engineering Technician, and the further career advancement to an Engineering Technologist (or Applied Engineer) possible in the field by pursuing a 4-year Bachelors Degree. Among all Technicians and Technologists working in USA, Electrical and Electronics Engineering professionals make up more than one-third, which is a clear indication for their demand. And this demand is nowadays driven more by the high-tech industry's need for Electronics Engineering Technicians, rather than the conventional industries' need for Electrical Engineering Technicians.
Why Electronics Engineering Technology?
All of today's booming industrial sectors like telecommunications, medical equipment, control systems, automotive systems, navigational systems, and of course, the consumer appliances sector are bringing out everything from mobile phones to home theatres, and require expertise in Electronics Engineering more than anything else, which explains the demand for Electronics Engineering professionals.
However, to attempt the field through an Engineering Degree can be taxing to those students who are not interested in taking advanced level mathematics (calculus) courses that an Engineering Degree requires, or to endure its long 4-year time frame. For such students, Electronics Engineering Technology is a great option, with its stress on applied or hands-on Electronics Engineering rather than the mathematics-dense and research-oriented Electronics Engineering. The time frame also is much shorter, with an Electronics Engineering Technician requiring only a 2-year Associate Degree to enter the field.
The job opportunities too are tilted in favor of Electronics Engineering Technicians when compared with Electronics Engineers; there are 182,000 Electrical and Electronics Engineering Technicians working in USA, compared with only 143,000 Electronics Engineers. The only drawbacks - a lower level in the hierarchy and the lower starting salaries than Electronics Engineers - can be overcome in the long run, since interested Electronics Engineering Technicians can study further for a 4-year Bachelors Degree, thus qualifying for the senior position of Electronics Engineering Technologist, who enjoys a position and salary comparable to Electronics Engineers. Average salary for Electronics Engineering Senior Technicians / Technologists is US $46,000, very comparable to salaries for Electronics Engineers at US $52,000.
Why Electronics Engineering Technology Distance Learning?
It is estimated that job opportunities for Electronics Engineering Technicians and Technologists would grow at up to 17% every year, for nearly the next 10 years. The requirement of an Associate Degree for entering the field is a relatively recent phenomenon, and a significant percentage of working Electronics Engineering Technicians doesn't have such a formal degree. The industry preference to degree holders is encouraging such working professionals to get an Associate Degree, and electronics engineering technology distance learning becomes the natural choice. Also, due to the boom in the sector, those already having an Associate Degree will go for a Bachelors Degree so that they can work as a Technologist. And, of course, the growth prospects in the sector are attracting working professionals from other fields to Electronics Engineering Technology. These three factors are driving the huge demand for electronics engineering technology distance learning courses.
Earlier, there were technological hindrances to deliver such a hands-on course through a distance or online model. However, with the development of state-of-the-art systems like National Instruments' LabVIEW/ELVIS (Educational Laboratory Virtual Instrumentation Suite), which can be used by remote students through a web browser, to virtually perform any electronics experiment, the demand for Electronics Engineering Distance Learning courses are at an all-time high.
Universities and Colleges Offering Electronics Engineering Technology Distance Learning
Electronics engineering technology distance learning courses offer both 2-year Associate and 4-year Bachelors Degrees. While Community Colleges and Institutes dominate the Associate Degree scene, Universities and Polytechnics are the primary sources for Bachelors Degrees. While searching for electronics engineering technology distance learning courses, it should be kept in mind that many US institutions still call the subject Electrical Engineering Technology.
Associate Degrees
Many Community Colleges and Institutes offer 2-year Associate Degrees for electronics engineering technology distance learning, but fully accredited courses are fewer. Whether for employment as an Electronics Engineering Technician or for further pursuance of a Bachelors Degree, it is always better to go for an accredited course. Cleveland Institute of Electronics (CIE), Penn Foster Career School, and Grantham University are three institutions that offer accredited Associate Degrees in the subject.
CIE's Associate in Applied Science (A.A.S.) in Electronics Engineering Technology boasts of many unique features. Designed from the ground up as a distance learning course, rather than an online adaptation of a regular course, the CIE A.A.S. provides everything that an electronics engineering technology distance learning student might require, in a packaged fashion - complete with printed courseware for over 250 self-paced lessons, videos, and detailed instructions for the over 300 hands-on lab experiments. The only thing missing will be access to an Oscilloscope, and the CIE Bookstore even sells Oscilloscopes at discounted prices to its students! One-to-one instructor support is always available for students. Even the exams can be taken online. A really unique feature of the course is that interested and capable students can complete the course in half or even quarter time, and need only pay for that!
Penn Foster Career School offers an Associate in Specialized Technology (AST) in Electronics Technology, that can be completed fully online, with access to an internet-connected computer being the only requirement. Tuition includes well-written and amply-illustrated printed courseware, tools and equipment for experiments, and unlimited instructor support through website, phone, email, and regular mail. Online open-book exams and end-of-semester proctored exams are other features of this course. The course is self-paced, with longer than 2-year durations allowed.
Grantham University offers an Associate of Science (AS) in Electronics Engineering Technology through the distance mode. The tuition package for the course includes textbooks, lesson guides, grading of all tests, mailing of materials and graded tests from the college, consultation with instructors, and required software. Proctored exams are conducted at the end of every semester, which lend more credibility to this course. Consultation with instructors is available through phone, fax, email, and regular mail. To better facilitate the distance mode of the course, Grantham University even provides a discounted option for its students to buy computers from Dell. However, the main advantage of this course is that full credit transfer is possible to Grantham's Bachelors Degree in the subject. Grantham is especially popular with military students.
Bachelors Degrees
When it comes to Bachelors Degrees for electronics engineering technology distance learning, even courses with accreditation from the Technology Accreditation Commission (TAC) of the Accreditation Board for Engineering Technology (ABET) are available.
Old Dominion University offers its Bachelor of Science (BS) in Engineering Technology, with Electrical Engineering Technology as Major, and Electrical Systems Technology as optional. The course name follows the earlier US convention of naming Electronics Engineering courses as Electrical Engineering courses. This B.S. indeed has significant stress on Electronics Engineering Technology. In-depth coverage of Electronics includes Linear Electronics, Digital Controls, Microprocessors, Communications, Control Systems etc. High-tech delivery methods like virtual laboratory, streaming video, and satellite broadcast for 1-way video and 2-way audio, are fully utilized. The course is accredited by TAC of ABET.
World College, a wholly owned subsidiary of the Cleveland Institute of Electronics (CIE), offers a Bachelor of Electronics Engineering Technology (BEET) through the distance mode. Features include over 300 lab experiments, online exams, and toll free phones and email for consultation with instructors. Subjects covered include Electronics, Computer Technology, Telecommunications, Electrical Power, and Control Systems. Access to a computer and an oscilloscope are necessary.
Grantham University (described above, under Associate Degrees) also offers a Bachelor of Science (BS) in Electronics Engineering Technology.
The only current limiting factor for electronics engineering technology distance learning seems to be the high costs for implementing virtual labs that can be simultaneously accessed by a large number of students, and once this is solved by better and economical hardware and software, electronics engineering technology distance learning will be provided by more and more Universities, Colleges, and Polytechnic Institutes.
Why Electronics Engineering Technology?
All of today's booming industrial sectors like telecommunications, medical equipment, control systems, automotive systems, navigational systems, and of course, the consumer appliances sector are bringing out everything from mobile phones to home theatres, and require expertise in Electronics Engineering more than anything else, which explains the demand for Electronics Engineering professionals.
However, to attempt the field through an Engineering Degree can be taxing to those students who are not interested in taking advanced level mathematics (calculus) courses that an Engineering Degree requires, or to endure its long 4-year time frame. For such students, Electronics Engineering Technology is a great option, with its stress on applied or hands-on Electronics Engineering rather than the mathematics-dense and research-oriented Electronics Engineering. The time frame also is much shorter, with an Electronics Engineering Technician requiring only a 2-year Associate Degree to enter the field.
The job opportunities too are tilted in favor of Electronics Engineering Technicians when compared with Electronics Engineers; there are 182,000 Electrical and Electronics Engineering Technicians working in USA, compared with only 143,000 Electronics Engineers. The only drawbacks - a lower level in the hierarchy and the lower starting salaries than Electronics Engineers - can be overcome in the long run, since interested Electronics Engineering Technicians can study further for a 4-year Bachelors Degree, thus qualifying for the senior position of Electronics Engineering Technologist, who enjoys a position and salary comparable to Electronics Engineers. Average salary for Electronics Engineering Senior Technicians / Technologists is US $46,000, very comparable to salaries for Electronics Engineers at US $52,000.
Why Electronics Engineering Technology Distance Learning?
It is estimated that job opportunities for Electronics Engineering Technicians and Technologists would grow at up to 17% every year, for nearly the next 10 years. The requirement of an Associate Degree for entering the field is a relatively recent phenomenon, and a significant percentage of working Electronics Engineering Technicians doesn't have such a formal degree. The industry preference to degree holders is encouraging such working professionals to get an Associate Degree, and electronics engineering technology distance learning becomes the natural choice. Also, due to the boom in the sector, those already having an Associate Degree will go for a Bachelors Degree so that they can work as a Technologist. And, of course, the growth prospects in the sector are attracting working professionals from other fields to Electronics Engineering Technology. These three factors are driving the huge demand for electronics engineering technology distance learning courses.
Earlier, there were technological hindrances to deliver such a hands-on course through a distance or online model. However, with the development of state-of-the-art systems like National Instruments' LabVIEW/ELVIS (Educational Laboratory Virtual Instrumentation Suite), which can be used by remote students through a web browser, to virtually perform any electronics experiment, the demand for Electronics Engineering Distance Learning courses are at an all-time high.
Universities and Colleges Offering Electronics Engineering Technology Distance Learning
Electronics engineering technology distance learning courses offer both 2-year Associate and 4-year Bachelors Degrees. While Community Colleges and Institutes dominate the Associate Degree scene, Universities and Polytechnics are the primary sources for Bachelors Degrees. While searching for electronics engineering technology distance learning courses, it should be kept in mind that many US institutions still call the subject Electrical Engineering Technology.
Associate Degrees
Many Community Colleges and Institutes offer 2-year Associate Degrees for electronics engineering technology distance learning, but fully accredited courses are fewer. Whether for employment as an Electronics Engineering Technician or for further pursuance of a Bachelors Degree, it is always better to go for an accredited course. Cleveland Institute of Electronics (CIE), Penn Foster Career School, and Grantham University are three institutions that offer accredited Associate Degrees in the subject.
CIE's Associate in Applied Science (A.A.S.) in Electronics Engineering Technology boasts of many unique features. Designed from the ground up as a distance learning course, rather than an online adaptation of a regular course, the CIE A.A.S. provides everything that an electronics engineering technology distance learning student might require, in a packaged fashion - complete with printed courseware for over 250 self-paced lessons, videos, and detailed instructions for the over 300 hands-on lab experiments. The only thing missing will be access to an Oscilloscope, and the CIE Bookstore even sells Oscilloscopes at discounted prices to its students! One-to-one instructor support is always available for students. Even the exams can be taken online. A really unique feature of the course is that interested and capable students can complete the course in half or even quarter time, and need only pay for that!
Penn Foster Career School offers an Associate in Specialized Technology (AST) in Electronics Technology, that can be completed fully online, with access to an internet-connected computer being the only requirement. Tuition includes well-written and amply-illustrated printed courseware, tools and equipment for experiments, and unlimited instructor support through website, phone, email, and regular mail. Online open-book exams and end-of-semester proctored exams are other features of this course. The course is self-paced, with longer than 2-year durations allowed.
Grantham University offers an Associate of Science (AS) in Electronics Engineering Technology through the distance mode. The tuition package for the course includes textbooks, lesson guides, grading of all tests, mailing of materials and graded tests from the college, consultation with instructors, and required software. Proctored exams are conducted at the end of every semester, which lend more credibility to this course. Consultation with instructors is available through phone, fax, email, and regular mail. To better facilitate the distance mode of the course, Grantham University even provides a discounted option for its students to buy computers from Dell. However, the main advantage of this course is that full credit transfer is possible to Grantham's Bachelors Degree in the subject. Grantham is especially popular with military students.
Bachelors Degrees
When it comes to Bachelors Degrees for electronics engineering technology distance learning, even courses with accreditation from the Technology Accreditation Commission (TAC) of the Accreditation Board for Engineering Technology (ABET) are available.
Old Dominion University offers its Bachelor of Science (BS) in Engineering Technology, with Electrical Engineering Technology as Major, and Electrical Systems Technology as optional. The course name follows the earlier US convention of naming Electronics Engineering courses as Electrical Engineering courses. This B.S. indeed has significant stress on Electronics Engineering Technology. In-depth coverage of Electronics includes Linear Electronics, Digital Controls, Microprocessors, Communications, Control Systems etc. High-tech delivery methods like virtual laboratory, streaming video, and satellite broadcast for 1-way video and 2-way audio, are fully utilized. The course is accredited by TAC of ABET.
World College, a wholly owned subsidiary of the Cleveland Institute of Electronics (CIE), offers a Bachelor of Electronics Engineering Technology (BEET) through the distance mode. Features include over 300 lab experiments, online exams, and toll free phones and email for consultation with instructors. Subjects covered include Electronics, Computer Technology, Telecommunications, Electrical Power, and Control Systems. Access to a computer and an oscilloscope are necessary.
Grantham University (described above, under Associate Degrees) also offers a Bachelor of Science (BS) in Electronics Engineering Technology.
The only current limiting factor for electronics engineering technology distance learning seems to be the high costs for implementing virtual labs that can be simultaneously accessed by a large number of students, and once this is solved by better and economical hardware and software, electronics engineering technology distance learning will be provided by more and more Universities, Colleges, and Polytechnic Institutes.
The Chevrolet Corvair Engine
The Chevrolet Corvair engine was a flat-6 (or boxer engine) piston engine used exclusively in the 1960s Chevrolet Corvair automobile. It was a highly unusual engine for General Motors: It was air-cooled, used a flat design, with aluminum heads (incorporating integral intake manifolds) and crankcase, and individual iron cylinder barrels. The heads were modeled after the standard Chevrolet overhead valve design, with large valves operated by rocker arms, actuated by pushrods run off a nine lobe camshaft (exhaust lobes did double duty for two opposing cylinders) running directly on the crankcase bore without an inserted bearing, operating hydraulic valve lifters (which eliminated low temperature valve clatter otherwise seen with that much aluminum in the engine, due to its high degree of thermal expansion).
The flat horizontally opposed ("flat engine") air-cooled engine design, previously used by Volkswagen and Porsche as well as Lycoming aircraft engines, offered many advantages. Unlike inline or V designs, the horizontally opposed design made the engine inherently mechanically balanced, so that counterweights on the crankshaft were not necessary, reducing the weight greatly. Eliminating a water-cooling system further reduced the weight, and the use of aluminum for the heads and crankcase capitalized on this weight reduction; so that with the use of aluminum for the transaxle case, the entire engine/transaxle assembly weighed under 500 pounds (225 kilograms). In addition, the elimination of water-cooling eliminated several points of maintenance and possible failure, reducing them all to a single point; the fan belt. As with the Volkswagen and Porsche designs, the low weight and compact but wide packaging made the engine ideal for mounting in the rear of the car, eliminating the weight and space of a conventional driveshaft.
Two years after its 1960 debut, the Corvair engine gained another unusual attribute: it was the second production engine ever to be equipped from the factory with a turbocharger, released shortly after the Oldsmobile Jetfire V8.
Aircraft hobbyists and small volume builders, perhaps seeing the Corvair engine's similarity to Lycoming aircraft engines, very quickly began a cottage industry of modifying Corvair engines for aircraft use, which continues to this day. The Corvair engine also became a favorite for installation into modified Volkswagens and Porsches, as well as dune buggies and homemade sports and race cars.
140
The Corvair's innovative turbocharged engine; The turbo, located at top right, takes in air through the large air cleaner at top left, passes it through the sidedraft carburetor in between, and feeds pressurized fuel/air mixture into the engine through the chrome T-tube visible spanning the engine from left to right.
The Corvair's innovative turbocharged engine; The turbo, located at top right, takes in air through the large air cleaner at top left, passes it through the sidedraft carburetor in between, and feeds pressurized fuel/air mixture into the engine through the chrome T-tube visible spanning the engine from left to right.
The initial Corvair engine displaced 140 in³ (2.3 L) and produced 80 hp (60 kW). The high performance optional "Super TurboAir" version, introduced mid 1960 with a special camshaft and revised carburetors and valve springs produced 95 hp (70 kW).
145
In 1961, the engine received its first increases in size via a larger bore. The engine was now 145 in³ and the base engine was said to produce the same 80 hp (60 kW). The new high performance engine was rated at 98 hp (73 kW). In 1962 the high performance engine was rated at 102 hp (76 kW). The high compression 102 HP heads were added to the Monza models equipped with Powerglide when the standard engine was ordered, giving an 84 HP engine rating. 1962 engines returned to automatic chokes after a one year only manual choke on 1961 models.
The ultimate performance was found in the Spyder model, which became available with a turbocharged engine rated at 150 hp (112 kW). The turbocharger was mounted on the right side of the firewall behind the rear seat, fed by both exhaust manifolds; a single sidedraft carburetor mounted on the left side of the firewall fed directly into the turbocharger's intake, with a chromed pipe leading from the turbocharger's outlet to what would otherwise be the carburetor mounting pads on the intake manifolds, which were integral parts of the heads. The turbocharged heads received some valve upgrades to improve durability. Exhaust valves on turbocharged engines were made from a non-ferrous material used in jet engine turbine buckets, called 'Nimonic 80-A'. All other Corvair engines had slight upgrades in valve and valve seat materials as well for 1962.
164
The engine was stroked out (from 2.6" to 2.94") displacing 164 in (2.7 L) for 1964. Power output was boosted to 95 hp (70 kW) for the base model and 110 hp (80 kW) in the high performance normally aspirated engine, while the Turbocharged engine remained rated at 150 hp for this year. This increase in stroke was the maximum the engine could tolerate, to the point that the bottoms of the cylinder barrels had to be notched to clear the big end of the connecting rods.
For the 1965 model year, all engines had the head gasket area between the cylinder and the head widened, with a new design folded "Z" section stainless steel head gasket virtually eliminating any risk of head gasket failure. A 140 hp (104 kW) version with 4 single barrel carburetors, and a progressive linkage was introduced in 1965 as option L63 'Special High Performance Engine' and was standard equipment on the Corsa model. The carburetors consisted of a single barrel primary and a single barrel secondary on each head, connected by a progressive linkage; in addition, the heads featured a 9.25:1 compression ratio, and the cars received dual exhaust systems. Engines supplied with the automatic transmission after spring 1965 were modified with a camshaft from the 95 Horsepower base engine, and a special crankshaft gear that retarded its timing 4 degrees- the former to increase torque and smooth idle with the Powerglide transmission, the latter to restore some of the peak HP lost at higher engine speeds by the economy contoured camshaft with short timing.
1966 engines were basically carryover from the 1965 models, however Corvairs sold in California (except Turbocharged models) now featured the General Motors Air Injection Reactor System (AIR), and emissions control system consisting of an engine driven air pump that drew filtered air from the air cleaner, and injected a metered amount into the exhaust manifolds via tubing to promote complete oxidation and combustion of exhaust gasses to lower emissions. Specially calibrated carburetors and slight changes to the ignition timing and advance curves were part of the package. The AIR system had an unfortunate effect of sustantially raising exhaust gas, valve and head temperatures, particularly under heavy loads and this was a drawback on the Corvair where engine cooling could not be easily improved to cope with the higher temperatures. Nonetheless, performance and drivability were not noticably effected in most circumstances. In 1968, all Corvair (and other GM) engines got the AIR system for every market.
The 140 HP engine was officially discontinued for '67, but became optional in 1967 as COPO 9551-B, not a regular production option. Chevrolet sold 279 of these engines in the 1967 model year, 232 with manual transmissions, and 47 with Powerglide transmissions. Only six were sold with the four carburetor engine and the AIR injection system required by California emissions standards. These figures include 14 Yenko Stingers and 3 Dana Chevrolet variants of the Stinger.
Both the 140 HP engines and the Turbocharged engines had many special quality features not shared with lesser Corvairs- Moly insert top rings, stellite tips and faces on the valves, a Tufftrided (cold gas hardened) crankshaft, and Delco Moraine '400' aluminum engine bearings- the quality of the 140HP Corvair engine for materials is directly comparable to the Rolls Royce V8 of that era, item for item. It was a fabulous bargain for the $79 premium it commanded over the basic 95HP engine. Performance of the 140HP engine was better than you might expect, with a 5200 rpm peak horsepower output, it offered road performance in a Corvair comparable to contemporary Cadillac models of the day.
The turbocharged engine now developed 180 hp (134 kW). Contemporary reviews describe a similarity in power between the turbocharged and four-carburetor engines throughout the low and mid rpm range, with the turbocharged engine being superior only when it was possible to sustain boost continously. The turbocharged engines long suit was highway acceleration, flooring the accelerator at turnpike speeds produced ferocious acceleration in the upper speed ranges as the turbocharger began to boost, reaching manifold pressures approaching 15 PSI. No wastegate was used on the Corvair turbocharged engine, boost was controlled by careful balancing of exhaust restriction, mostly via the muffler, and intake restrictions from the smallish Carter YH carburetor used. Preignition and knock under boost was controlled using a novel 'pressure retard' device, essentially a modified vacuum advance device, on the specially curved distributor, as boost pressures built, ignition advance was progressively reduced to preclude detonation.
The flat horizontally opposed ("flat engine") air-cooled engine design, previously used by Volkswagen and Porsche as well as Lycoming aircraft engines, offered many advantages. Unlike inline or V designs, the horizontally opposed design made the engine inherently mechanically balanced, so that counterweights on the crankshaft were not necessary, reducing the weight greatly. Eliminating a water-cooling system further reduced the weight, and the use of aluminum for the heads and crankcase capitalized on this weight reduction; so that with the use of aluminum for the transaxle case, the entire engine/transaxle assembly weighed under 500 pounds (225 kilograms). In addition, the elimination of water-cooling eliminated several points of maintenance and possible failure, reducing them all to a single point; the fan belt. As with the Volkswagen and Porsche designs, the low weight and compact but wide packaging made the engine ideal for mounting in the rear of the car, eliminating the weight and space of a conventional driveshaft.
Two years after its 1960 debut, the Corvair engine gained another unusual attribute: it was the second production engine ever to be equipped from the factory with a turbocharger, released shortly after the Oldsmobile Jetfire V8.
Aircraft hobbyists and small volume builders, perhaps seeing the Corvair engine's similarity to Lycoming aircraft engines, very quickly began a cottage industry of modifying Corvair engines for aircraft use, which continues to this day. The Corvair engine also became a favorite for installation into modified Volkswagens and Porsches, as well as dune buggies and homemade sports and race cars.
140
The Corvair's innovative turbocharged engine; The turbo, located at top right, takes in air through the large air cleaner at top left, passes it through the sidedraft carburetor in between, and feeds pressurized fuel/air mixture into the engine through the chrome T-tube visible spanning the engine from left to right.
The Corvair's innovative turbocharged engine; The turbo, located at top right, takes in air through the large air cleaner at top left, passes it through the sidedraft carburetor in between, and feeds pressurized fuel/air mixture into the engine through the chrome T-tube visible spanning the engine from left to right.
The initial Corvair engine displaced 140 in³ (2.3 L) and produced 80 hp (60 kW). The high performance optional "Super TurboAir" version, introduced mid 1960 with a special camshaft and revised carburetors and valve springs produced 95 hp (70 kW).
145
In 1961, the engine received its first increases in size via a larger bore. The engine was now 145 in³ and the base engine was said to produce the same 80 hp (60 kW). The new high performance engine was rated at 98 hp (73 kW). In 1962 the high performance engine was rated at 102 hp (76 kW). The high compression 102 HP heads were added to the Monza models equipped with Powerglide when the standard engine was ordered, giving an 84 HP engine rating. 1962 engines returned to automatic chokes after a one year only manual choke on 1961 models.
The ultimate performance was found in the Spyder model, which became available with a turbocharged engine rated at 150 hp (112 kW). The turbocharger was mounted on the right side of the firewall behind the rear seat, fed by both exhaust manifolds; a single sidedraft carburetor mounted on the left side of the firewall fed directly into the turbocharger's intake, with a chromed pipe leading from the turbocharger's outlet to what would otherwise be the carburetor mounting pads on the intake manifolds, which were integral parts of the heads. The turbocharged heads received some valve upgrades to improve durability. Exhaust valves on turbocharged engines were made from a non-ferrous material used in jet engine turbine buckets, called 'Nimonic 80-A'. All other Corvair engines had slight upgrades in valve and valve seat materials as well for 1962.
164
The engine was stroked out (from 2.6" to 2.94") displacing 164 in (2.7 L) for 1964. Power output was boosted to 95 hp (70 kW) for the base model and 110 hp (80 kW) in the high performance normally aspirated engine, while the Turbocharged engine remained rated at 150 hp for this year. This increase in stroke was the maximum the engine could tolerate, to the point that the bottoms of the cylinder barrels had to be notched to clear the big end of the connecting rods.
For the 1965 model year, all engines had the head gasket area between the cylinder and the head widened, with a new design folded "Z" section stainless steel head gasket virtually eliminating any risk of head gasket failure. A 140 hp (104 kW) version with 4 single barrel carburetors, and a progressive linkage was introduced in 1965 as option L63 'Special High Performance Engine' and was standard equipment on the Corsa model. The carburetors consisted of a single barrel primary and a single barrel secondary on each head, connected by a progressive linkage; in addition, the heads featured a 9.25:1 compression ratio, and the cars received dual exhaust systems. Engines supplied with the automatic transmission after spring 1965 were modified with a camshaft from the 95 Horsepower base engine, and a special crankshaft gear that retarded its timing 4 degrees- the former to increase torque and smooth idle with the Powerglide transmission, the latter to restore some of the peak HP lost at higher engine speeds by the economy contoured camshaft with short timing.
1966 engines were basically carryover from the 1965 models, however Corvairs sold in California (except Turbocharged models) now featured the General Motors Air Injection Reactor System (AIR), and emissions control system consisting of an engine driven air pump that drew filtered air from the air cleaner, and injected a metered amount into the exhaust manifolds via tubing to promote complete oxidation and combustion of exhaust gasses to lower emissions. Specially calibrated carburetors and slight changes to the ignition timing and advance curves were part of the package. The AIR system had an unfortunate effect of sustantially raising exhaust gas, valve and head temperatures, particularly under heavy loads and this was a drawback on the Corvair where engine cooling could not be easily improved to cope with the higher temperatures. Nonetheless, performance and drivability were not noticably effected in most circumstances. In 1968, all Corvair (and other GM) engines got the AIR system for every market.
The 140 HP engine was officially discontinued for '67, but became optional in 1967 as COPO 9551-B, not a regular production option. Chevrolet sold 279 of these engines in the 1967 model year, 232 with manual transmissions, and 47 with Powerglide transmissions. Only six were sold with the four carburetor engine and the AIR injection system required by California emissions standards. These figures include 14 Yenko Stingers and 3 Dana Chevrolet variants of the Stinger.
Both the 140 HP engines and the Turbocharged engines had many special quality features not shared with lesser Corvairs- Moly insert top rings, stellite tips and faces on the valves, a Tufftrided (cold gas hardened) crankshaft, and Delco Moraine '400' aluminum engine bearings- the quality of the 140HP Corvair engine for materials is directly comparable to the Rolls Royce V8 of that era, item for item. It was a fabulous bargain for the $79 premium it commanded over the basic 95HP engine. Performance of the 140HP engine was better than you might expect, with a 5200 rpm peak horsepower output, it offered road performance in a Corvair comparable to contemporary Cadillac models of the day.
The turbocharged engine now developed 180 hp (134 kW). Contemporary reviews describe a similarity in power between the turbocharged and four-carburetor engines throughout the low and mid rpm range, with the turbocharged engine being superior only when it was possible to sustain boost continously. The turbocharged engines long suit was highway acceleration, flooring the accelerator at turnpike speeds produced ferocious acceleration in the upper speed ranges as the turbocharger began to boost, reaching manifold pressures approaching 15 PSI. No wastegate was used on the Corvair turbocharged engine, boost was controlled by careful balancing of exhaust restriction, mostly via the muffler, and intake restrictions from the smallish Carter YH carburetor used. Preignition and knock under boost was controlled using a novel 'pressure retard' device, essentially a modified vacuum advance device, on the specially curved distributor, as boost pressures built, ignition advance was progressively reduced to preclude detonation.
Tuesday, October 21, 2008
Must Have Checklist: Choosing a GPS Device
Must Have Checklist: Choosing a GPS Device
15 Smart Uses for a GPS-Enabled Device
1. Drive yourself and others with increased safety and more confidence
2. Install in your business’ delivery vans to make efficient use of time and gas
3. Hop in the SUV and drive the kids straight to a new friend’s birthday party – hassle free
4. Use on your boat (or a friend’s) to locate a favorite saltwater fishing spot
5. Tuck in your backpack when on a bike ride to try a different route home
6. Find the nearest diner on a road trip in your RV
7. Locate the nearest home improvement store on the day you move into your new house
8. Carry in your pocket to keep your bearings while on a nature walk
9. Avoid being the last one to arrive at the 8 a.m. meeting
10. Get roadside assistance with the touch of a button
11. Make phone calls from your car when your cell phone battery dies
12. Swing by and get some roses at the nearest florist on your way to pick up your date
13. Check out that excellent Mexican restaurant your sister mentioned she ate at last week
14. Drive the rental car to Las Vegas from Chicago in record time
15. Spend more time selling to clients and less time on the road
Relying on technology to help you find your way may seem like a luxury. But in fact, using GPS can provide you with so many benefits that you will likely be able to afford more luxury. A GPS-enabled device such as a portable GPS unit or cell phone can save you time, gas and money while preventing headaches – whether you purchase it for business or personal use.
Global Positioning Systems communicate your current location to satellites in orbit, which then feed navigation information to the GPS-enabled device in your car, delivery van, RV, boat, semi-tractor trailer, ATV backpack or jacket pocket.
Types of GPS-enabled devices include:
· Units for in-dash installation in a vehicle
· Portable full-featured units
· Portable no-frills models
· Handheld devices for hikers, bikers and tourists on foot
· PDAs with integrated receivers or equipped with add-on adapters
· Cell phones
Features to Consider
New, clever enhancements are being made to GPS systems every day. Although the following features are common, they show up in many combinations, so be sure to compare products thoroughly. Take the time to review ratings carefully, too – there’s nothing like having a GPS to know how well it works.
· Voice guided driving directions (so drivers don’t have to look at the display screen)
· If installed or mounted in a vehicle, drivers should only use the touch screen when at a stop. For your driving safety, some GPS units will “lock down” when the vehicle is in motion; others accept voice commands.
· Integrated Bluetooth for handsfree calling
· Integration with AAA or other roadside assistance service
· Option to store favorite locations
· Ability to search for and route to points of interest as well as by address
· Option to choose different forms of navigation (fastest route, most use of highways, etc.)
· Integration with data about current traffic conditions
· Up-to-date and comprehensive information about roads and locations
· Latitude and longitude coordinates, and detailed street maps
· Ability to connect the device to a computer or insert a DVD/CD and update maps and data
· Automatic rerouting when you veer off course
· Touchscreen controls
· Music and picture storage
· Vehicle-mount kit (usually a powerful suction cup); keep in mind that to work effectively, a GPS device’s antenna must have an unobstructed view of the sky
Who Should Buy a GPS-Enabled Device?
Investing in GPS may be a smart move if you:
· Have a company that depends on delivery, transit, or business travel
· Are new to the area
· Are prone to taking wrong turns or losing your bearings
· Like to know in advance what driving action you will need to take
· Tend to run late
· Live in an area that is not remote, heavily wooded or an urban jungle
· Spend a lot of time on the road or travelling by bike or on foot
· Get stressed when driving
· Enjoy off-roading or exploring new terrain
· Are planning a road trip or to rent a car in an unfamiliar location
If you are intrigued by GPS but not sure you want to put a lot of money into your first purchase, consider buying a refurbished model. These devices have been returned to the manufacturer, often for minor problems, and restored to the same quality standards as new units. You may be able to save up to 50% on models that have been discontinued or refurbished.
15 Smart Uses for a GPS-Enabled Device
1. Drive yourself and others with increased safety and more confidence
2. Install in your business’ delivery vans to make efficient use of time and gas
3. Hop in the SUV and drive the kids straight to a new friend’s birthday party – hassle free
4. Use on your boat (or a friend’s) to locate a favorite saltwater fishing spot
5. Tuck in your backpack when on a bike ride to try a different route home
6. Find the nearest diner on a road trip in your RV
7. Locate the nearest home improvement store on the day you move into your new house
8. Carry in your pocket to keep your bearings while on a nature walk
9. Avoid being the last one to arrive at the 8 a.m. meeting
10. Get roadside assistance with the touch of a button
11. Make phone calls from your car when your cell phone battery dies
12. Swing by and get some roses at the nearest florist on your way to pick up your date
13. Check out that excellent Mexican restaurant your sister mentioned she ate at last week
14. Drive the rental car to Las Vegas from Chicago in record time
15. Spend more time selling to clients and less time on the road
Relying on technology to help you find your way may seem like a luxury. But in fact, using GPS can provide you with so many benefits that you will likely be able to afford more luxury. A GPS-enabled device such as a portable GPS unit or cell phone can save you time, gas and money while preventing headaches – whether you purchase it for business or personal use.
Global Positioning Systems communicate your current location to satellites in orbit, which then feed navigation information to the GPS-enabled device in your car, delivery van, RV, boat, semi-tractor trailer, ATV backpack or jacket pocket.
Types of GPS-enabled devices include:
· Units for in-dash installation in a vehicle
· Portable full-featured units
· Portable no-frills models
· Handheld devices for hikers, bikers and tourists on foot
· PDAs with integrated receivers or equipped with add-on adapters
· Cell phones
Features to Consider
New, clever enhancements are being made to GPS systems every day. Although the following features are common, they show up in many combinations, so be sure to compare products thoroughly. Take the time to review ratings carefully, too – there’s nothing like having a GPS to know how well it works.
· Voice guided driving directions (so drivers don’t have to look at the display screen)
· If installed or mounted in a vehicle, drivers should only use the touch screen when at a stop. For your driving safety, some GPS units will “lock down” when the vehicle is in motion; others accept voice commands.
· Integrated Bluetooth for handsfree calling
· Integration with AAA or other roadside assistance service
· Option to store favorite locations
· Ability to search for and route to points of interest as well as by address
· Option to choose different forms of navigation (fastest route, most use of highways, etc.)
· Integration with data about current traffic conditions
· Up-to-date and comprehensive information about roads and locations
· Latitude and longitude coordinates, and detailed street maps
· Ability to connect the device to a computer or insert a DVD/CD and update maps and data
· Automatic rerouting when you veer off course
· Touchscreen controls
· Music and picture storage
· Vehicle-mount kit (usually a powerful suction cup); keep in mind that to work effectively, a GPS device’s antenna must have an unobstructed view of the sky
Who Should Buy a GPS-Enabled Device?
Investing in GPS may be a smart move if you:
· Have a company that depends on delivery, transit, or business travel
· Are new to the area
· Are prone to taking wrong turns or losing your bearings
· Like to know in advance what driving action you will need to take
· Tend to run late
· Live in an area that is not remote, heavily wooded or an urban jungle
· Spend a lot of time on the road or travelling by bike or on foot
· Get stressed when driving
· Enjoy off-roading or exploring new terrain
· Are planning a road trip or to rent a car in an unfamiliar location
If you are intrigued by GPS but not sure you want to put a lot of money into your first purchase, consider buying a refurbished model. These devices have been returned to the manufacturer, often for minor problems, and restored to the same quality standards as new units. You may be able to save up to 50% on models that have been discontinued or refurbished.
Operational amplifier : OP-AMP
An operational amplifier, often called an op-amp , is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with differential inputs[1] and, usually, a single output. Typically the output of the op-amp is controlled either by negative feedback, which largely determines the magnitude of its output voltage gain, or by positive feedback, which facilitates regenerative gain and oscillation. High input impedance at the input terminals and low output impedance are important typical characteristics.
Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being used in a vast array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Many standard IC op-amps cost only a few cents in moderate production volume; however some integrated or hybrid operational amplifiers with special performance specifications may cost over $100 US in small quantities.
Modern designs are electronically more rugged than earlier implementations and some can sustain direct short-circuits on their outputs without damage.
The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of differential amplifier include the fully differential amplifier (similar to the op-amp, but with 2 outputs), the instrumentation amplifier (usually built from 3 op-amps), the isolation amplifier (similar to the instrumentation amplifier, but which works fine with common-mode voltages that would destroy an ordinary op-amp), and negative feedback amplifier (usually built from 1 or more op-amps and a resistive feedback network).
Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being used in a vast array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Many standard IC op-amps cost only a few cents in moderate production volume; however some integrated or hybrid operational amplifiers with special performance specifications may cost over $100 US in small quantities.
Modern designs are electronically more rugged than earlier implementations and some can sustain direct short-circuits on their outputs without damage.
The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of differential amplifier include the fully differential amplifier (similar to the op-amp, but with 2 outputs), the instrumentation amplifier (usually built from 3 op-amps), the isolation amplifier (similar to the instrumentation amplifier, but which works fine with common-mode voltages that would destroy an ordinary op-amp), and negative feedback amplifier (usually built from 1 or more op-amps and a resistive feedback network).
Saturday, October 18, 2008
Load cell
A load cell is an electronic device (transducer) that is used to convert a force into an electrical signal. This conversion is indirect and happens in two stages. Through a mechanical arrangement, the force being sensed deforms a strain gauge. The strain gauge converts the deformation (strain) to electrical signals. A load cell usually consists of four strain gauges in a Wheatstone bridge configuration. Load cells of one or two strain gauges are also available. The electrical signal output is typically in the order of a few millivolts and requires amplification by an instrumentation amplifier before it can be used. The output of the transducer is plugged into an algorithm to calculate the force applied to the transducer.
Although strain gauge load cells are the most common, there are other types of load cells as well. In industrial applications, hydraulic (or hydrostatic) is probably the second most common, and these are utilized to eliminate some problems with strain gauge load cell devices. As an example, a hydraulic load cell is immune to transient voltages (lightning) so might be a more effective device in outdoor environments.
Other types include piezo-electric load cells (useful for dynamic measurements of force), and vibrating wire load cells, which are useful in geomechanical applications due to low amounts of drift.
Every load cell is subject to "ringing" when subjected to abrupt load changes. This stems from the spring-like behavior of load cells. In order to measure the loads, they have to deform. As such, a load cell of finite stiffness must have spring-like behavior, exhibiting vibrations at its natural frequency. An oscillating data pattern can be the result of ringing. Ringing can be suppressed in a limited fashion by passive means. Alternatively, a control system can use an actuator to actively damp out the ringing of a load cell. This method offers better performance at a cost of significant increase in complexity.
Load cell types
Applications
Although strain gauge load cells are the most common, there are other types of load cells as well. In industrial applications, hydraulic (or hydrostatic) is probably the second most common, and these are utilized to eliminate some problems with strain gauge load cell devices. As an example, a hydraulic load cell is immune to transient voltages (lightning) so might be a more effective device in outdoor environments.
Other types include piezo-electric load cells (useful for dynamic measurements of force), and vibrating wire load cells, which are useful in geomechanical applications due to low amounts of drift.
Every load cell is subject to "ringing" when subjected to abrupt load changes. This stems from the spring-like behavior of load cells. In order to measure the loads, they have to deform. As such, a load cell of finite stiffness must have spring-like behavior, exhibiting vibrations at its natural frequency. An oscillating data pattern can be the result of ringing. Ringing can be suppressed in a limited fashion by passive means. Alternatively, a control system can use an actuator to actively damp out the ringing of a load cell. This method offers better performance at a cost of significant increase in complexity.
Load cell types
- double ended shear beam
- single ended shear beam
- single column
- multi column
- membrane
- torsion ring
- bending ring
- pancake
- digital ElectroMotive Force
Applications
- electronic crane scales
- finding the center of gravity of an object by weight
- force measurement
- Force gauge
- hopper, tank and vessel weighing
- onboard weighing
- railcar weighing
- structural health monitoring
- tension measurement
- in- motion dynamic check weighers check weigher
- truck weighing
- wireless crane scales
- "S" Type
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